Formability improvement with independent die and punch temperature control

A combined experimental and numerical study of the effects of die and punch temperature on the formability of a modified AA3003 aluminum alloy sheet for a case study sample is presented. Here, the non-isothermal deep drawing of a cup-like feature in a thin gauge aluminum automotive component is considered. An experimental forming setup that incorporates both heated dies and a cooled punch has been developed. A parametric study of the effects of die temperature, punch temperature, and blank holder force on the formability of the part is conducted. Numerical simulations of the warm forming process are performed using a coupled thermo-mechanical finite element model. The temperature-dependant material model combines the Bergstrom hardening rule with Barlat’s YLD2000 yield function and was implemented in LS-DYNA as a user-defined material model. Selected experimental cases were modelled numerically and compared to experiments. The FEA model was validated against experimental results by comparing measured and predicted punch force versus displacement as well as trends in the formability as a function of die temperature.     

A deformation based blank design method for formed parts

Blank design is an important task in sheet metal forming process optimization. The initial blank shape has direct effect on the part quality. This paper presents a deformation based blank design approach to determine the initial blank shape for a formed part. The blank design approach is integrated separately into ABAQUS, and DD3IMP, a research purpose in-house FEA code, to demonstrate its compatibility with any FEA code. The algorithm uses FE results to optimize the blank shape for a part. Deep drawing simulation of a rectangular cup geometry was carried out with an initial blank shape determined empirically. The blank shape was iteratively modified, based on the deformation history, until an optimal blank shape for the part is achieved. The optimal blank shapes predicted by the algorithm using both FEA softwares were similar. Marginal differences in the shape error indicate that the deformation history based push/pull technique can effectively determine an optimal blank shape for a part with any FEA software. For the shape error selected, both procedures estimate the optimal blank shape for the part within five iterations.     

An experimental investigation of forming load and side-wall thickness obtained by a new deep drawing die

Deep drawing is an important process used for producing cups from sheet metal in large quantities. The deep drawing process is affected by many variables such as blank shape, punch and die radii, material’s formability characteristics, and many more. In order to obtain optimal process parameters with regard to part geometry, the blank and die geometry are particularly important factors. In this study, we investigated the effects of blank holder and die shapes, using six different blank holder and die shapes. We measured the distribution of blank holder force (BHF), the forming load at different drawing depths as well as thickness reduction of cup wall thickness for each set of die and punch geometries. The experimental study shows that the angle of blank and die surface influence the forming load and blank holder force distribution. Deep drawing dies with matrix and blank holder angle designed in this study provided deep drawing ratios that are about 25 % larger than those that usually can be obtained by a conventional die.     

纸盒模切板设计的几个问题

分析讨论了对纸盒模切板设计的影响因素，如纸板纹向、盒坯外形、搭桥、模切工艺等；分析了通过拼接提高原材料利用率的方法，给出了几种愤况的数学公式。     

Impact of Repeated Nitriding Cycles on Extrusion Die Life—Some Statistical and Metallurgical Observations

This paper presents some observations about die failure patterns in commercial aluminum extrusions. A total of 97 dies were analyzed to observe the nature of scatter in the life of these commonly used dies. Each die in its complete life cycle passes through a number of nitriding treatments. The number of these nitriding treatments generally ranges from 5 to 10 in most cases. Each nitriding event is equivalent to die surface renewal, and a new time between failures is calculated after each renewal. This article analyzes the performance of both solid and hollow dies to first failure and to subsequent failures after nitriding. The Weibull model describes the time to first failure and cumulative time to nth failure of this group of dies and indicates an overall wearout pattern. The median time to failure, scatter in cumulative life, and progress of die death rate are discussed. A die is considered to fail when the surface must be nitrided. The interarrival time between failures (nitriding events) is analyzed for both solid and hollow dies. It is shown that interarrival time is also Weibull distributed. Based on these observations, it is concluded that if die is treated as a repairable system and the die surface nitriding makes the die as good as new, the failure can essentially be modeled as a nonhomogeneous Poisson process with a nonlinear intensity of failure. The results presented are of the first phase of an ongoing project dealing with life improvement of extrusion dies. The analyses presented provide a starting point for subsequent in-depth study of die-life reliability, optimal nitriding interval determination, and optimal cumulative time before die replacement.     

台阶盒形件起皱和开裂改善

目的 改善台阶盒形件拉深成形时凸缘区起皱和圆角区开裂的缺陷。方法 理论分析了起皱和开裂产生的原因,利用有限元模拟分析了压边力大小、凹模运行方式和板料形状对台阶盒形件拉深成形的影响,采用实验验证了有限元模拟结果的准确性。结果 长方形板料拉深成形时,4个角部相比直边部位流动阻力更大,直边部位材料过度向模具型腔内流动,造成凸缘区周向压应力过大,进而引起起皱,当零件拉深深度较大时,圆角部位材料变形剧烈且材料流动不均匀,极易产生开裂;采用20 kN的压边力、梯形的凹模向下运行方式和类椭圆形板料的工艺参数可以控制材料流动,使板料变形均匀并改善凸缘区起皱和圆角区开裂缺陷。结论 有限元模拟可为冲裁工艺参数的选取提供理论指导。     

Premature failure of thread rolling dies: material selection,hardness criteria and case studies

Whilst responding to continued market demand for increased hardness of large section (D2 tool steel) thread rolling dies, a die manufacturer encountered unexpected production difficulties along with a spate of premature ‘in-service’ failures. This report presents criteria for material selection and hardness of thread rolling dies, along with three case studies of specific failures that emphasise why excessive hardness in this type of die material was inadvisable.     

DEM simulation of particle segregation in filling of vibratory dies

The homogeneity of the metal powder in the dies is a primary factor affecting the quality of the product obtained by powder metallurgy manufacturing routes. Hence, a desirable goal during die filling is to achieve a homogeneous distribution of particles. However, the presence of particles of different shapes and sizes in metallic powders may give rise to inhomogeneous distribution leading to the segregation of particles. In addition to segregation, the presence of cavities or gaps in the dies with sharp features can affect the quality of final products. In this work, discrete element simulations are carried out to study the die filling of an axisymmetric die with internal stepped features which led to the formation of gaps in the die as it is filled with particles. The die is subjected to vertical vibratory motion and the effect of vibration parameters on the size segregation of particles and the compaction characteristics of the metallic powder are studied. At higher amplitudes, a cluster of coarse particles was observed at the center near the base of the die. At higher vibrational frequencies out of phase, flows were observed in the stepped regions of the die which led to the formation of surface waves.     

Optimum groove pressing die design to achieve desirable severely plastic deformed sheets

In this paper, considering the problems of common finite element (FE) codes that consider simple constitutive equations, a developed FE code that considers a new constitutive model is used to simulate the behavior of copper sheets under severe plastic deformation (SPD). The new proposed constitutive model, that considers dislocation densities in cell interiors and cell walls of material as true internal state variables, can investigate all stages of flow stress evolution of material during large plastic deformations and also can explain the effects of strain rate magnitude on the mechanical response of material, during room temperature SPD. The proposed FE analysis is used to investigate the effects of die design on the property of SPDed sheets by groove pressing (GP) processes. To do so, the GP processes through existent designations of dies are simulated and a good agreement between the modeling results and experimental data is obtained. In addition, a new die design is proposed that can eliminate the problems of the existent designations of dies and can produce the sheets with higher strength and more uniform hardness.     

直齿圆柱齿轮冷挤压成形腔参数优化

针对齿轮冷挤压技术存在的成形压力大和坯料填充困难问题,建立了流线型的直齿圆柱齿轮冷挤压成型腔几何模型,并对挤压过程进行了数值模拟。结果表明,流线型挤压腔能够在较小的成型力下保证挤压齿轮齿形填充饱满。通过对模拟过程的分析,研究了不同坯料放大半径λ值对成型腔形状和挤压方式的影响,并通过对不同成型腔的数值模拟,得到最优的参数模型。     

Investigating the effects of cross wedge rolling preforming operation and die forging with flash brakes on forging titanium hip implants

To reduce production costs of forged parts, different approaches are possible. Especially for valuable materials like titanium, material costs represent a large part of the production costs. Therefore, reducing the initial material can decrease the total costs significantly. In order to identify the potential for improvements, an existing forging sequence was investigated. For a titanium hip implant, a forging sequence was developed. To reduce the initially needed material, cross wedge rolling as a preforming operation and die forging with flash brakes was investigated. The influence of the different stages on the final result was analysed and presented in detail. To increase the prediction accuracy of the newly developed flash-reduced forging sequence and decrease iteration loops of die designs, feasible simulation parameters considering the boundary conditions of the forging environment were investigated. This is done using Finite Element Analysis (FEA), considering form filling, process stability, die stress and press forces. Using cross wedge rolling and die forging with flash brakes, the newly developed forging sequence reduces the flash rate significantly from 69% to 32%.     

Reproducing the experimental pull-out and shear strength of clinched sheet metal connections using FEA

Clinching, commonly referred to as press-joining, is a mechanical joining technique which involves severe local plastic deformation of two or more sheet metal parts resulting in a permanent mechanical interlock or joint. This interlock is achieved by using simple tools like a die, a punch and a blank holder. Since no additional elements are used, the strength of the clinched connection is entirely determined by the clinch geometry, and, consequently, by the geometry of die and punch. As a result, for each combination of material and sheet thickness an optimal geometry of the tools can be derived. This can be done either through extensive experimental testing or, more cost-effectively, with the aid of numerical simulations. However, for these results to be useful they have to be able to reproduce the experimental strength of the connection. In this paper we investigate the possibility of predicting the shear and pull-out strength of a clinched sheet metal assembly using FEA. Numerical difficulties associated with these simulations and the preceding forming operation are discussed. A comparison between experimental data and simulation is provided.     

复相钢CP800典型零件冲压开裂原因分析与改进

目的解决热轧酸洗复相钢CP800在底盘拖曳臂外壳零件应用过程中出现的开裂问题。方法借助有限元软件AUTOFORM对零件进行仿真评估,研究材料性能、润滑状态、模具圆角、坯料尺寸等对开裂的影响,分析影响开裂的原因。结果通过提升材料性能、降低摩擦因数、放大凹模圆角以及优化坯料边界,可以有效改善开裂区域的成形性能,其中优化坯料边界效果最佳,开裂风险可完全消除。结论材料性能按均匀伸长率≥5%控制,同时通过优化开裂区域坯料边界及放大凹模圆角,开裂得到了有效解决。     

飞机复杂曲面蒙皮零件充液拉深技术研究

目的研究充液拉深工艺参数对飞机复杂曲面蒙皮零件成形质量的影响规律。方法以飞机灯罩蒙皮零件为研究对象,结合材料力学特性分析了零件的工艺性。基于破裂和起皱失稳条件理论研究了零件的加载工艺窗口,利用有限元方法分析了零起皱和破裂等缺陷,通过优化工艺参数和拉延筋参数获得了合格的构件。结果基于仿真优化结果,进行了模具设计和工艺验证实验,分析了实际充液拉深过程中缺陷产生的原因,为落差较大蒙皮零件的精密制造提供参考。结论对于具有多特征的复杂零部件,过渡曲面易产生起皱缺陷,仅通过调整液室压力或毛料尺寸的方法无法在保证不发生拉裂和贴模问题的前提下消除起皱缺陷。通过设置拉延筋来增加材料流动阻力、控制材料流动,可以消除过渡区域的起皱缺陷。     

高强钢控制臂件冲压工艺优化及稳健性分析

为获得高强钢控制臂件冲压工艺参数最优解,提高冲压工艺稳健性,基于6sigma稳健设计理论,采用数值模拟方法分析预成形模具间隙、局部翻边模间隙、预成形压边力、摩擦系数、板料轮廓尺寸等对拐角处材料减薄率的影响规律;将坯料位置、料片厚度、摩擦系数、塑性应变比、屈服强度、抗拉强度、板料尺寸等作为噪声变量输入,分析工艺的稳健性;根据敏感性分析结果,选用局部翻边模间隙、预成形模具间隙为变量,3σ水平设为目标,成形过程能力Cp值为1.0,进行优化计算;最后采用优化后的局部翻边模间隙、预成形模具间隙值,其他噪音变量不变,再次进行稳健性分析.研究发现,影响控制臂局部过度减薄甚至开裂的主要因素为预成形模具间隙及局部翻边模具间隙.根据模拟结果试模,零件的壁厚分布与模拟结果相比,最大误差小于6%.通过对关键参数的敏感性分析以及考虑噪声因素的稳健性分析,优化工艺参数后,成形质量水平提高,成形结果可靠.     

Defining Shape Complexity of Extrusion Dies—A Reliabilistic View

Complexity of the profile being extruded plays a critical role in die design, die reliability, process aberrations, and product defects. Engineering common sense dictates that a more complex die should require a larger amount of extrusion force or pressure. This has been experimentally substantiated by the authors in a recent study. According to a basic definition, therefore, extrusion shape complexity is the ratio of the pressure required to extrude a complex profile to the pressure required for a solid circular profile of the same area. Most of the complexity definitions reported in published literature are based on this interrelationship between extrusion pressure and profile complexity. From a die reliability viewpoint, a complex profile is more difficult to extrude than a simple one, and it generates more stresses in the die. It should therefore lead to an earlier die failure. Another study by the authors confirms that the working life of hot extrusion dies is definitely affected by profile complexity. Reported complexity definitions provide some sort of index to measure extrudability, and can thus be used for pressure prediction to a certain degree. Unfortunately, none of these definitions addresses the very important issue of die reliability, and they generally yield a counterintuitive trend of increasing die life with increasing complexity. None of these definitions includes all the significant geometrical features of a die profile. This article reports the development of two new definitions of shape complexity (linear and power-law) incorporating all significant geometrical features of an extrusion die profile. Die failure data from a large commercial extrusion facility have been collected and analyzed. Regression-based models have been developed for prediction of die failure on the basis of complexity.     

5CrNiMo钢的强度水平和表面强化对冲击疲劳性能的影响

本文探讨了用冲击疫劳试验测定的疲劳寿命和疲劳裂纹扩展速率衡量热锤锻模材料疲劳抗力的合理性。研究了5CrNiMo钢在热锻模要求的硬度范围内,材料强度水平和表面强化对冲击疲劳性能的影响。试验结果表明,在相当小型锻模受载的低冲击能量作用下,适当提高材料强度可延长疲劳寿命;在相当大型锻模受载的高冲击能量作用下,提高材料塑性、韧性可提高疲劳寿命。软氮化并磨去脆性白层可显著提高低冲击能量下的冲击疲劳寿命。     

Deformation Behavior Study of Multi-Pass ECAE Process for Fabrication of Ultrafine or Nanostructured Bulk Materials

Severe plastic deformation (SPD) is an efficient approach for producing ultrafine or nanostructured bulk materials. Equal channel angular extrusion (ECAE) is the most effective SPD solution for material nanostructuring, as material billet undergoes severe and large deformation and the grains are efficiently broken up in the process. To improve material nanostructuring, the ECAE die design and process configuration are critical. The deformation behavior study through FE simulation in ECAE process provides basic and useful information for optimizing die design and process determination. In this research, the deformation behavior for three different die design scenarios is studied and the related deformation mechanisms and nanostructuring performance are investigated via FE simulation. Through multi-pass simulation, the optimal design scenario is then identified. The simulation results reveal deformation phenomena, and nanostructuring performance of the designs and the corresponding process can be recommended accordingly for improving die and process performance.     

基于 AUTOFORM 的汽车前围横梁连接板的数值分析与实验研究

目的分析汽车前围横梁连接板的冲压成形过程。方法以板料成形非线性分析软件AUTOFORM为平台,对汽车前围横梁连接板的冲压成形过程进行CAE分析。根据模拟结果(成形极限图、材料流动分布及材料变薄率),对拉延型面及工艺参数进行了优化。结果所得零件材料最大减薄率为14.6%,在B340LA(t=1.0 mm)材质减薄率安全范围内(16.9%),零件型面球化处角部无暗伤及拉裂,翻边处材料流动均匀,无开裂风险,成形结果得到大大改善。结论 CAE仿真能够预测零件成形过程中存在的缺陷,优化工艺参数,指导模具设计工作。最后将优化结果用于指导实际生产,得到了符合质量要求的零件。     

Cr12钢模具开裂原因分析

Cr12钢模具在制作过程中出现裂纹。采用光学显微镜、电子显微镜、化学成分分析和硬度测试等方法，对模具材料进行了检测和分析。原材料冶金质量差(碳化物呈网状分布且晶粒粗大)，在随后的锻造过程中又未能改变碳化物分布和形态，导致材料性能差。模具在第一次线切割后未产生裂纹，表明模具经第一次线切割后，材料所受到的各种应力未能达到临界应力值，但此时模具内原有的应力平衡已被破坏，使局部应力的释放并重新分布，尤其向块状粗长的碳化物集中。模具在进行第二次线切割时表面产生的附加拉应力与材料已存在的内应力相叠加，其总应力超过了材料的抗拉强度，导致裂纹沿碳化物脆性开裂。