Explaining Disproportionately High Rates of Adverse Birth Outcomes Among African Americans: The Impact of Stress, Racism, and Related Factors in Pregnancy.

Compared with European Americans, African American infants experience disproportionately high rates of low birth weight and preterm delivery and are more than twice as likely to die during their 1st year of life. The authors examine 5 explanations for these differences in rates of adverse birth outcomes: (a) ethnic differences in health behaviors and socioeconomic status; (b) higher levels of stress in African American women; (c) greater susceptibility to stress in African Americans; (d) the impact of racism acting either as a contributor to stress or as a factor that exacerbates stress effects; and (e) ethnic differences in stress-related neuroendocrine, vascular, and immunological processes. The review of literature indicates that each explanation has some merit, although none is sufficient to explain ethnic disparities in adverse birth outcomes. There is a lack of studies examining the impact of such factors jointly and interactively. Recommendations and cautions for future research are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

American = White?

Six studies investigated the extent to which American ethnic groups (African, Asian, and White) are associated with the category "American." Although strong explicit commitments to egalitarian principles were expressed in Study 1, Studies 2-6 consistently revealed that both African and Asian Americans as groups are less associated with the national category "American" than are White Americans. Under some circumstances, a dissociation between mean levels of explicit beliefs and implicit responses emerged such that an ethnic minority was explicitly regarded to be more American than were White Americans, but implicit measures showed the reverse pattern (Studies 3 and 4). In addition, Asian American participants themselves showed the American = White effect, although African Americans did not (Study 5). The American = White association was positively correlated with the strength of national identity in White Americans. Together, these studies provide evidence that to be American is implicitly synonymous with being White. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Anxiety psychopathology in African American adults: Literature review and development of an empirically informed sociocultural model.

In this review, the extant literature concerning anxiety psychopathology in African American adults is summarized to develop a testable, explanatory framework with implications for future research. The model was designed to account for purported lower rates of anxiety disorders in African Americans compared to European Americans, along with other ethnoracial differences reported in the literature. Three specific beliefs or attitudes related to the sociocultural experience of African Americans are identified: awareness of racism, stigma of mental illness, and salience of physical illnesses. In our model, we propose that these psychological processes influence interpretations and behaviors relevant to the expression of nonpathological anxiety as well as features of diagnosable anxiety conditions. Moreover, differences in these processes may explain the differential assessed rates of anxiety disorders in African Americans. The model is discussed in the context of existing models of anxiety etiology. Specific follow-up research is also suggested, along with implications for clinical assessment, diagnosis, and treatment. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Race and the workforce: Occupational status, aspirations, and stereotyping among African American children.

This study examined whether African American children's perceptions of occupational status and their own vocational interests are affected by racial segregation of the workforce. Children (N = 92) rated familiar occupations with respect to status, desirability, and stereotyping. Children also rated novel jobs that had been depicted with African Americans, European Americans, or both African and European Americans. As predicted, for familiar jobs, children's judgments were linked to their knowledge of racial segregation of these jobs. In addition, novel occupations that had been depicted with African Americans were judged as lower in status than the identical occupations that had been depicted with European Americans, demonstrating a causal influence of workers' race on children's judgments. Children's age and socioeconomic background moderated their occupational judgments. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Historical racism: Implications for Native Americans.

Comments on the article by R. Clark et al (see record 1999-11644-001), which outlines a biopsychosocial model for perceived racism as a stressor among African Americans. One long-standing example of intergroup racism that continues to have pervasive effects is historical racism. It is argued that historical racism has had and continues to have a profound impact on Native Americans. The authors outline some possible ways in which historical racism constitutes a stressor with biopsychosocial implications for American Indians. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

African American dreaming and the beast of racism: The cultural unconscious in Jungian analysis.

This article is an interpretation of the dream of an African American woman. The purpose is to discuss the contribution that contemporary Jungian analysis might make to the attempt by psychoanalysis to serve historically disenfranchised populations-- in particular, African Americans. The dreamer encounters racism in the image of a lion and other beasts. The interpretation takes into account both the archetypal level and the cultural level of the dream. Important concepts are the cultural unconscious and history-residues. The article argues that Jungian analysis-- as well as all other varieties of psychoanalysis-- will remain ineffective in addressing the concerns of disenfranchised populations until analysts make a serious effort to become culturally knowledgeable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Optimism and Pessimism as Mediators of the Relations Between Self-Discrepancies and Distress Among Asian and European Americans.

The authors examined the role of undesired self-discrepancies in predicting emotional distress among Asian and European Americans, whether undesired self-discrepancies are stronger predictors of distress for Asian than for European Americans, and whether optimism and pessimism mediate the relations between ideal, ought, and undesired self-discrepancies and emotional distress. Self-identified Asian/Asian American (n = 140) and European American (n = 189) college students completed measures of self-discrepancies, optimism/pessimism, social anxiety, and depressive symptoms. Results show that for both Asian Americans and European Americans, greater similarity to the undesired self is equally predictive of symptoms of depression, whereas distance from the undesired self is more predictive of social anxiety for Asian Americans than for European Americans. Furthermore, pessimism fully mediates the relations between undesired self-discrepancies and depressive symptoms for both Asian Americans and European Americans, although pessimism was a stronger predictor of depression for European Americans than for Asians/Asian Americans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Examining the relations between rumination and adjustment: Do ethnic differences exist between Asian and European Americans?

Past studies have pointed to the dysfunctional nature of rumination in adults. However, past research has not examined ethnic variations. Accordingly, this study examined ethnic differences in rumination in 184 Asian American and 238 European American college students. Consistent with expectations, Asian Americans were found to ruminate more than European Americans. However, rumination was found to have a weaker association with measures of adjustment (viz., affectivity, depressive symptoms, anxious symptoms, and life satisfaction) in Asian Americans compared with European Americans. As a result of conducting regression analyses to determine whether rumination was a unique predictor of functioning beyond affectivity, we found rumination to be a more distinct and useful predictor of functioning for Asian Americans than for European Americans. Overall, compared with findings for European Americans, our findings indicate that important ethnic differences need to be considered in studying rumination in Asian Americans. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The role of person-environment fit in the job satisfaction and tenure intentions of African American employees.

In light of speculation that the determinants of job satisfaction and tenure for African American employees may not be adequately captured by the theory of work adjustment (TWA; Dawis & Lofquist, 1984), in the present study the authors tested assumptions of the TWA with an African American sample by (a) examining the strength of fit-satisfaction and fit-turnover intentions relationships, (b) testing the ability of racial climate to moderate the fit-satisfaction and fit-turnover intentions relationships, (c) analyzing qualitative data related to the determinants of job satisfaction, and (d) investigating potential differences in the fit-satisfaction and fit-turnover intentions relationships for African Americans and European Americans. Self-report data were collected from African American employees (n = 204) that assessed fit perceptions, departmental racial climate, job satisfaction, and turnover intentions. African American employees' reports of fit perceptions explained variance in job satisfaction (43.20%) and turnover intentions (20.20%); however, racial climate did not emerge as a moderator. Qualitative results supported these findings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age and ethnicity differences in storytelling to young children: Emotionality, relationality and socialization.

Research has shown that age and ethnicity are associated with individuals' motivations for emotional regulation and social interaction. The authors proposed that these age and ethnicity-related motives would be reflected in storytelling. Women representing 2 age and 2 ethnic groups (young adulthood, old age, African American, European American) told stories to young girls. Stories were coded for emotional, relational, and socialization focus. They predicted that older adults would selectively emphasize positive over negative emotions and would direct more utterances toward their interaction with their listener. The authors expected that African Americans would be more likely to emphasize socialization themes. Results suggest that older adults positively modulate emotional content while storytelling; qualified support was found for hypotheses concerning socialization and interrelational emphasis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-stereotyping in the context of multiple social identities.

This research examines self-stereotyping in the context of multiple social identities and shows that self-stereotyping is a function of stereotyped expectancies held in particular relationships. Participants reported how others evaluated their math and verbal ability and how they viewed their own ability when their gender or ethnicity was salient. Asian American women (Experiment 1) and European Americans (Experiment 2) exhibited knowledge of stereotyped social expectancies and corresponding self-stereotyping associated with their more salient identity. African Americans (Experiment 3) exhibited some knowledge of stereotyped social expectancies but no corresponding self-stereotyping. Correlational evidence and a 4th experiment suggest that self-stereotyping is mediated by the degree to which close others are perceived to endorse stereotypes as applicable to the self. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Cultural themes in the psychotic symptoms of African American psychiatric patients.

Professional psychologists need to recognize ethnic/racial differences between African Americans and European Americans in psychotic symptom expression to treat individuals with severe mental illness from various cultural backgrounds. Specifically, they need to understand confluent paranoia or the interaction between culture and pathology in psychotic symptom expression. To assist mental health professionals, the present study identified cultural themes in the delusions and hallucinations of a sample of 156 African American psychiatric patients via content analysis. Race-related themes and religious themes were observed in the psychotic symptoms of these patients assessed with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM IV. Race-related and religious content were manifested in different types of delusions. Race-related themes were more common in persecutory delusions, whereas religious themes occurred more often in other delusions. Race-related themes were associated more with delusions, while religious themes correlated with both delusions and hallucinations. Implications for the treatment of confluent paranoia in African Americans are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Weight, self-esteem, ethnicity, and depressive symptomatology during pregnancy among inner-city women.

The relationship of weight and self-esteem to depressive symptomatology was examined among 36 African American and 96 European American pregnant inner-city women. Lower self-esteem and higher deviations from medically ideal weight predicted increased dysphoria during the 3rd trimester for European American women, but only lower self-esteem predicted increased dysphoria for African American women. These results support the hypothesis that African Americans are less likely than European Americans to experience negative psychological repercussions of greater weight. Consistent with findings among nonpregnant middle-class samples, these results extend the association between heavier weight and increased risk for psychological distress to pregnant women of European American descent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

African American and European American therapists' experiences of addressing race in cross-racial psychotherapy dyads.

Using Consensual Qualitative Research, 12 licensed psychologists' overall experiences addressing race in psychotherapy were investigated, as were their experiences addressing race in a specific cross-racial therapy dyad. Results indicated that only African American psychologists reported routinely addressing race with clients of color or when race was part of a client's presenting concern. European American psychologists indicated that they would address race if clients raised the topic, and some reported that they did not normally address race with racially different clients. When discussing a specific cross-racial dyad, African American therapists more often than European American therapists addressed race because they perceived client discomfort. Only European American therapists reported feeling uncomfortable addressing race, but therapists of both races perceived that such discussions had positive effects. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model.

Various authors have noted that interethnic group and intraethnic group racism are significant stressors for many African Americans. As such, intergroup and intragroup racism may play a role in the high rates of morbidity and mortality in this population. Yet, although scientific examinations of the effects of stress have proliferated, few researchers have explored the psychological, social, and physiological effects of perceived racism among African Americans. The purpose of this article was to outline a biopsychosocial model for perceived racism as a guide for future research. The first section of this article provides a brief overview of how racism has been conceptualized in the scientific literature. The second section reviews research exploring the existence of intergroup and intragroup racism. A contextual model for systematic studies of the biopsychosocial effects of perceived racism is then presented, along with recommendations for future research. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reporting discrimination in public and private contexts.

The authors tested the hypothesis that members of stigmatized groups would be unwilling to report that negative events that occur to them are the result of discrimination when they are in the presence of members of a nonstigmatized group. Supporting this hypothesis, women and African Americans were more likely to report that a failing grade assigned by a man or a European American was caused by discrimination, rather than by their own lack of ability, when they made the judgment privately and in the presence of a fellow stigmatized group member. However, they were more likely to indicate that the cause of the failure was lack of ability, rather than discrimination, when they expected to make these judgments aloud in the presence of a nonstigmatized group member. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-focused attention and emotional reactivity: The role of culture.

Research conducted with European Americans suggests that attention to the individual self intensifies emotional reactivity. We propose, however, that cultural models of the self determine which aspect of the self (individual vs. relational), when attended to, intensifies emotional reactivity. In 3 studies, we predicted and observed that attention to individual aspects of the self was associated with levels of emotional reactivity that were greater in individuals from European American contexts (which promote an independent model of the self) than in individuals from Asian American contexts (which promote an interdependent model of the self). In contrast, attention to relational aspects of the self was associated with levels of emotional reactivity that were similar or greater in individuals from Asian American than in individuals from European American contexts. These findings highlight the importance of considering cultural and situational factors when examining links between the self and emotion. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

African Americans' Perceptions of Psychotherapy and Psychotherapists.

Do you have a multicultural practice? Do you understand the attitudes and expectations African Americans hold about mental health services? The attitudes and beliefs of 201 African Americans regarding psychotherapists, psychotherapy, and barriers to treatment were explored by means of focus groups. Key banners to service utilization included stigma, lack of knowledge, lack of affordability, lack of trust, impersonal service, and lack of cultural understanding. Participants reported that race should not matter in therapy, but they often believed that psychologists were insensitive to the African American experience. The implications of participants' reports for meeting African American mental health and therapy needs are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Drinking outcomes following drink refusal skills training: Differential effects for African American and non-Hispanic White clients.

Determining whether a particular treatment works for specific groups of people can help tailor dissemination of evidence-based alcohol treatments. It has been proposed that individuals from different racial groups might have better outcomes in treatments that are sensitive to sociocultural issues that impact alcohol use among these groups. The current study was a secondary analysis of data from the combined behavioral intervention (CBI) condition of the COMBINE study. Those randomly assigned to CBI (n = 776) had the opportunity to receive up to 9 skills training modules, which were chosen by the therapist. The goal of the current study was to determine whether receiving 1 of the CBI modules, drink refusal and social pressure skills training, predicted differential outcomes among African American clients. Results indicated that African American clients who received the drink refusal skills training module (n = 25) had significantly fewer heavy drinking days (d = 0.79) 1 year following treatment than African Americans clients who did not receive the module (n = 35). African American clients who received the module also had significantly fewer heavy drinking days (d = 0.86) than non-Hispanic White clients who received the module (n = 241). Good clinical outcomes at 1 year posttreatment were observed among 80% of African Americans who received the module, compared with 54% of African Americans who did not receive the module and 52% of non-Hispanic White clients who did receive the module. Although small sample size limits interpretation, findings provide preliminary evidence supporting the inclusion of drink refusal skills training as part of alcohol interventions for African American clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Coping with intergenerational family conflict: Comparison of Asian American, Hispanic, and European American college students.

Using a stress-coping framework, the authors examined indirect and direct coping strategies as potential mediators in the relationship between intergenerational family conflict and psychological distress in Asian American, Hispanic, and European American college students. Asian American college students reported the highest likelihood of family conflict. Students from all cultural groups also used direct coping slightly more often than they did indirect coping. Only indirect coping mediated the effect of family conflict on distress for Asian Americans and European Americans, but it did so in the opposite direction than hypothesized. For these two cultural groups, indirect coping fully accounted for the variance shared between family conflict and psychological distress. For Hispanics, indirect coping partially mediated the effect of family conflict on psychological distress. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)