Breast dosimetry using high-resolution voxel phantoms

A computer model of X-ray mammography has been developed, which uses quasi-realistic high-resolution voxel phantoms to simulate the breast. The phantoms have 400 microm voxels and simulate the three-dimensional distributions of adipose and fibro-glandular tissues, Cooper's ligaments, ducts and skin and allow the estimation of dose to individual tissues. Calculations of the incident air kerma to mean glandular dose conversion factor, g, were made using a Mo/Mo spectrum at 28 kV for eight phantoms in the thickness range 40-80 mm and of varying glandularity. The values differed from standard tabulations used for breast dosimetry by up to 43%, because of the different spatial distribution of glandular tissue within the breast. To study this further, additional voxel phantoms were constructed, which gave variations of between 9 and 59% compared with standard values. For accurate breast dosimetry, it is therefore very important to take the distribution of glandular tissues into account.     

Patient doses from screen-film and full-field digital mammography in a population-based screening programme

The aim of this study was to compare mean glandular dose (MGD) in all full-field digital mammography (FFDM) and screen film mammography (SFM) systems used in a national mammography screening program. MGD from 31 screening units (7 FFDM and 24 SFM), based on an average of 50 women at each screening unit, representing 12 X-ray models (6 FFDM and 6 SFM) from five different manufacturers were calculated. The MGD was significantly lower for FFDM compared with SFM (craniocaudal): 1.19 versus 1.27 mGy, respectively, mediolateral oblique: 1.33 versus 1.45 mGy, respectively), but not all of the FFDM units provided lower doses than the SFM units. Comparing FFDMs, the photon counting scanning-slit technology provides significantly lower MGDs than direct and indirect conversion digital technology. The choice of target/filter combination influences the MGD, and has to be optimised with regard to breast thickness.     

A survey on performance status of mammography machines: image quality and dosimetry studies using a standard mammography imaging phantom

It is essential to perform quality control (QC) tests on mammography equipment in order to produce an appropriate image quality at a lower radiation dose to patients. Imaging and dosimetric measurements on 15 mammography machines located at the busiest radiology centres of Mumbai, India were carried out using a standard CIRS breast imaging phantom in order to see the level of image quality and breast doses. The QC tests include evaluations of image quality and the mean glandular doses (MGD), which is derived from the breast entrance exposure, half-value layer (HVL), compressed breast thickness (CBT) and breast tissue compositions. At the majority of the centres, film-processing and darkroom conditions were not found to be maintained, which is required to meet the technical development specifications for the mammography film in use as recommended by the American College of Radiology (ACR). In most of the surveyed centres, the viewbox luminance and room illuminance conditions were not found to be in line with the mammography requirements recommended by the ACR. The measured HVL values of the machines were in the range of 0.27-0.39 mm aluminium (Al) with a mean value of 0.33±0.04 mm Al at 28 kV(p) following the recommendation provided by ACR. The measured MGDs were in the range of 0.14-3.80 mGy with a mean value of 1.34 mGy. The measured MGDs vary between centre to centre by a factor of 27.14. Referring to patient doses and image quality, it was observed that only one mammography centre has exceeded the recommended MGD, i.e. 3.0 mGy per view with the value of 3.80 mGy and at eight mammography centres the measured central background density (CBD) values for mammography phantom image are found to be less than the recommended CBD limit value of 1.2-2.0 optical density.     

Determination of crystallization as a function of Mo layer thickness in Mo/Si multilayers

Mo/Si multilayer samples with different Mo layer thickness were deposited by electron beam evaporation, while Kr⁺ ions (300 eV) were used for polishing the Si layers. Crystallization as a function of the Mo layer thickness deposited was investigated by grazing incidence X-ray diffraction, giving information on the crystalline phases, average size and crystallite formation. Comparison of these parameters for the samples examined provided novel results, especially regarding the in-plane and in-depth average sizes of the crystallites. The most important result is that crystallization takes place already when a 1 nm thick Mo layer has been deposited. Moreover, the average in-plane size of the crystallites was found to be independent of the layer thickness, while the average in-depth size corresponded to the thickness of the Mo layer. Depositions consist of polished Si layers were found to give a larger amount of crystalline material compared to those consist of unpolished Si layers.     

Novel circular-beam equalizing techniques that use graded-index fiber optics for a high-power laser diode

We demonstrate a novel method of equalizing a laser diode (LD) beam into a circular beam. This method uses the twist effect of graded index (GI) fiber optics. An asymmetric LD beam with beam qualities of M2 = 500 in the slow axis and M2 = 4 in the fast axis is converted successfully into a symmetric circular beam with a beam quality of M2 = 175. The circular-output beam with 92% coupling efficiency from the fiber input to the fiber output is obtained with a 5-m-long GI1200 (1200 means a core diameter of 1200 microm) fiber for a 2-W LD array. We extend the experiments to a higher-power source with higher asymmetric beam qualities of M2 = 3000 and M2 = 4. By slightly bending the GI10000 (10000 means a core diameter of 10,000 microm) fiber, we have succeeded in generating a symmetric beam with a improved beam quality of M2 = 2000. The average beam quality is preserved when the asymmetric ratio is not high, and the beam quality degradation ratio is investigated up to asymmetric ratios of 750.     

NiFe／Cu和NiFe／Mo多层膜的界面结构与巨磁电阻

采用磁控溅射方法制备了ＮｉＦｅ／Ｃｕ和ＮｉＦｅ／Ｍｏ多层膜。测量了厚度不同的Ｃｕ层和Ｍｏ层多层膜的磁性和磁电阻,并用电镜分析了部分ＮｉＦｅ／Ｃｕ多层膜样品。测量到ＮｉＦｅ／Ｃｕ多层膜的室温巨磁电阻随Ｃｉ层厚度振荡的第一、二、三峰。而在ＮｉＦｅ／Ｍｏ多层膜中未发现巨磁电阻效应。讨论了多层膜的界面结构对巨磁电阻效应的影响。     

Microdosimetric characterisation of 28 kVp Mo/Mo,Rh/Rh,Rh/Al,W/Rh and Mo/Rh mammography X ray spectra

Microdosimetric characteristics of 28 kVp mammography X ray spectra were studied for several target/added filtration combinations (Mo/Mo, Rh/Rh, Rh/Al, W/Rh, Mo/Rh). Monte Carlo techniques were used to model X ray production from mammography units and to calculate distributions of absorbed dose and energy imparted in breast tissue. The results show that the dose averaged lineal energy is about 5.0 keV.micron-1, about 25% higher than for general diagnostic imaging X ray spectra. Significant differences in lineal energy between the five X ray qualities were noted, with the highest value for the commonly used Mo/Mo combination. Spectral hardening with depth in the tissues causes a 5% decrease in lineal energy over 5 cm. No significant differences were found for the different tissue compositions.     

Evaluation of patient dose for mammography in Pernambuco, Brazil

The aim of this study is to evaluate the incident air kerma (INAK) and the mean glandular dose (MGD) during mammography in Recife, North-east Brazil. The study was performed in three institutions: a private clinic (A), a public hospital (B) and a private hospital (C). The incident air kerma to mammography procedures were estimated using a standard breast phantom and the patient MGD, evaluated in the units B and C, was performed using the calibration of output method. This method involves the recording of the patient exposure parameters (kVp, mAs, filter) and the measurement of these parameters of the incident air kerma using a calibrated ionisation chamber. The results obtained showed that INAK for the standard breast phantom, in the institutions A, B and C, were 18.2, 9.4 and 8.5 mGy, respectively. The results of patient MGD values ranged from 0.23 to 7.46 mGy per film, and the MGD values per woman were between 8.23 and 40.6 mGy for the C institution and between 1.50 and 18.78 mGy for the B institution.     

Application of European protocol in the evaluation of contrast-to-noise ratio and mean glandular dose for two digital mammography systems

The performance of two digital mammography systems, Agfa CR75 and CRMM3 computed radiography (CR) and IMS Giotto MD direct digital radiography (DR), was assessed by applying a method recommended in the European protocol for quality control in mammography screening. The contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) and mean glandular dose (MGD) values were measured and contrast detail (CD) analysis was performed. The CNRs for system CR were 21.9, 12.9, 9.5, 8.8, 7.4, 5.5 and 4.4 for 2, 3, 4, 4.5, 5, 6 and 7-cm polymenthylmethacrylate (PMMA) thickness, respectively. The respective CNRs for system DR were 10.4, 8.8, 6.3, 7.3, 7.2, 6.4 and 6.54. For the same phantom thickness sequence, the MGDs were 0.7, 1.1, 1.3, 1.6, 1.9, 2.5 and 3.4 mGy for system CR, whereas they were 0.7, 1.2, 1.1, 1.3, 1.8, 3.5 and 3.9 mGy for system DR. The CNR and MGD results satisfactorily correlate with CD analysis results. The MGD values compare well with the values recommended in the European protocol. Despite being simple, CNR and MGD can provide an effective system for performance assessment and constancy checks for related optimisations.     

Characterization of Mo/Si soft X-ray multilayer mirrors by grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering

The morphology of buried interfaces plays a key role in high performing Mo/Si soft X-ray mirrors. We show that grazing-incidence small-angle X-ray scattering is a highly effective and non-destructive diagnostic technique for analysis of buried interfaces. The parameters of average interface autocorrelation function can be determined unambiguously. Additionally period thickness, roughness of interfaces and an effective number of vertically correlated periods can be extracted. The multilayer mirrors were prepared by e-beam evaporation on heated and unheated substrates, ion beam assisted e-beam evaporation, ion beam sputtering and RF magnetron sputtering. The latter three techniques produce multilayer mirrors with comparable interface roughness. The differences in lateral correlation length and Hurst parameter are found.     

基于仿真方法的CFRP复合材料孔隙率与超声衰减系数的关系

为从超声衰减机制角度解释碳纤维增强树脂基（CFRP）复合材料孔隙率P与超声衰减系数α之间呈非唯一对应关系的原因,针对厚度为2 mm的热压罐成型单向CFRP层板,建立了具有不同孔隙尺寸的CFRP模型（P=0.5%~3.5%）,并采用数值计算方法得到衰减系数α值。当孔隙横向尺寸D=56 μm,即归一化波数kD=2π D/λ <1（超声波波长λ ≈560 μm）时,α随P增大而缓慢线性增加;当D=93 μm（kD ≈ 1）时,α随P增大呈对数增长。仿真结果表明,超声波在含孔隙CFRP中传播时,随着归一化波数的不同,超声波衰减可能包括瑞利散射和随机散射两种机制,孔隙形貌的随机复杂性导致CFRP孔隙率与超声衰减系数之间呈现非唯一对应关系。     

邻菲罗啉共振光散射光谱法测定痕量镉的研究

基于镉与KI、邻菲罗啉形成多元配合物导致体系共振光散射强度增强,并且随着Cd2+浓度的加大,共振光散射的强度逐渐增大,建立一种邻菲罗啉共振光散射光谱法测定痕量镉的新方法。室温下,采用邻菲罗啉,pH=7.0条件下,在λ=397.6 nm处,Cd2+的加入浓度与共振光散射强度呈良好的线性关系,方法线性范围为0.01～6.5μg/mL,相关系数r=0.999 1,检出限0.06μg/mL,样品加标回收率为96.0%～102.8%。该法用于实际样品废旧电池中痕量镉的分析,效果较好。     

Structure, growth, and optical properties of TbAl3(BO3)4 single crystal

TbAl(3)(BO(3))(4) single crystal was grown from a K(2)Mo(3)O(10)-B(2)O(3) system using the top-seeded high temperature solution method (TSSG), 20 mm×9 mm×7 mm in size. The grown crystal was characterized by x-ray diffraction analysis showing that the crystal has a trigonal structure and the space group is R32 with lattice parameters of a = b = 9.293(13) ?, c = 7.249(6) ?. Faraday rotations of TbAl(3)(BO(3))(4) crystal were investigated at room temperature at wavelengths of 532, 633, and 1064 nm. Finally, the Verdet constants were measured at V = -108.8, -85.7, and -20.8 rad/mT for 532, 633, and 1064 nm, respectively.     

Breast dose variability in a bi-racial population undergoing screening mammography

This study evaluated individual and population dose variability during screening mammography, among 570 white and black women in South Carolina, USA. Aspects of dosimetry that were considered include compressed breast thickness (CBT), number of films per screening session, and dose in previous or subsequent sessions. Breast dose was log-normally distributed in the population, with a geometric mean of 6.6 mGy per session. Doses were significantly higher for black women, for women with high CBT or who receive more than two views per breast, and for the mediolateral oblique, compared to the craniocaudal, view. No relationship was observed between age and dose. Total dose per breast varied by a factor of 20 across the study population, but the individual's dose varied little among repeat screening sessions, especially after adjusting for the number of films received per session. These results may inform assessments of the projected risks of inducing breast cancer from screening mammography.     

Average glandular dose in routine mammography screening using a Sectra MicroDose Mammography unit

The Sectra MicroDose Mammography system is based on direct photon counting (with a solid-state detector), and a substantially lower dose to the breast than when using conventional systems can be expected. In this work absorbed dose measurements have been performed for the first unit used in routine mammography screening (at the Hospital of Helsingborg, Sweden). Two European protocols on dosimetry in mammography have been followed. Measurement of half value layer (HVL) cannot be performed as prescribed, but this study has demonstrated that non-invasive measurements of HVL can be performed accurately with a sensitive and well collimated solid-state detector with simultaneous correction for the energy dependence. The average glandular dose for a 50 mm standard breast with 50% glandularity, simulated by 45 mm polymethylmethacrylate, was found to be 0.21 and 0.28 mGy in March and December 2004, respectively. These values are much lower than for any other mammography system on the market today. It has to be stressed that the measurements were made using the current clinical settings and that no systematic optimisation of the relationship between absorbed dose and diagnostic image quality has been performed within the present study. In order to further increase the accuracy of absorbed dose measurements for this unit, the existing dose protocols should be revised to account also for the tungsten/aluminium anode/filter combination, the multi-slit pre-collimator device and the occurrence of a dose profile in the scanning direction.     

Ion beam nitriding of titanium and titanium alloy

Titanium and Ti8A/1Mo1V alloy have been nitrided with an ion beam source of nitrogen or agon and nitrogen, at a total pressure of 2?10×10^?4 torr. The treated surface has been characterized by surface profilometry, X-ray diffractometry, Auger Electron Spectroscopy (AES), and microhardness measurements. It was found that tetragonal Ti₂N phase forms in pure titanium and Ti8A/2Mo1V alloy with traces of AIN in the alloy. Two opposite processes were found to compete during the ion beam nitriding: (a) formation of nitrides in the surface layers; (b) sputtering of the nitrided layers by the ion beam. The highest surface hardness, of about 500 kg mm^?2 in titanium and 800 kg mm^?2 in Ti8A/1Mo1V, was obtained by nitriding with an ion beam of pure nitrogen at 4.2×10^?4 torr, at beam voltage of 1000 V.     

High-order correlations from rough-surface scattering

It is proposed to apply an optical setup of a randomly weak rough dielectric film on a reflecting metal substrate for the measurement of high-order correlations from rough-surface scattering. The angular amplitude and intensity correlations are measured. Because of multiple scattering, when the input laser beam size is comparatively small or close to the travel pass length inside the film, C(2) and C(3) are measured by subtraction of the amplitude correlation from the intensity correlation.     

Mammography dosimetry using an in-house developed polymethyl methacrylate phantom

Phantom-based measurements in mammography are well-established for quality assurance (QA) and quality control (QC) procedures involving equipment performance and comparisons of X-ray machines. Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) is among the best suitable materials for simulation of the breast. For carrying out QA/QC exercises in India, a mammographic PMMA phantom with engraved slots for keeping thermoluminescence dosemeters (TLD) has been developed. The radiation transmission property of the developed phantom was compared with the commercially available phantoms for verifying its suitability for mammography dosimetry. The breast entrance exposure (BEE), mean glandular dose (MGD), percentage depth dose (PDD), percentage surface dose distribution (PSDD), calibration testing of automatic exposure control (AEC) and density control function of a mammography machine were measured using this phantom. MGD was derived from the measured BEE following two different methodologies and the results were compared. The PDD and PSDD measurements were carried out using LiF: Mg, Cu, P chips. The in-house phantom was found comparable with the commercially available phantoms. The difference in the MGD values derived using two different methods were found in the range of 17.5-32.6 %. Measured depth ranges in the phantom lie between 0.32 and 0.40 cm for 75 % depth dose, 0.73 and 0.92 cm for 50 % depth dose, and 1.54 and 1.78 cm for 25 % depth dose. Higher PSDD value was observed towards chest wall edge side of the phantom, which is due to the orientation of cathode-anode axis along the chest wall to the nipple direction. Results obtained for AEC configuration testing shows that the observed mean optical density (O.D) of the phantom image was 1.59 and O.D difference for every successive increase in thickness of the phantom was within±0.15 O.D. Under density control function testing, at -2 and -1 density settings, the variation in film image O.D was within±0.15 O.D of the normal density setting '0' and at +2 and +1 density setting, it was observed to be within±0.30 O.D. This study indicates that the locally made PMMA TLD slot phantom can be used to measure various mammography QC parameters which are essentially required for better outcomes in mammography.     

Application of Fourier transform Raman spectroscopy for prediction of bitterness of peptides

The potential application of Fourier transform (FT) Raman spectroscopy to predict the bitterness of peptides was investigated. FT-Raman spectra were measured for the amino acid Phe and 9 synthetic di-, tri-, and tetra peptides composed of Phe, Gly, and Pro. Partial least squares regression (PLS)-1 analysis was applied to correlate the FT-Raman spectra with bitterness intensity values (R(caf) and log 1/T) reported in the literature. Using full cross-validation, Model 1 based on the single spectral data set for the nine peptides yielded a high correlation coefficient for calibration (R = 0.99), but a low correlation coefficient for prediction (R = 0.56). Two models were constructed using the data sets including replicate spectra for the calibrations and were validated using full cross-validation. Using leave-one-sample-set-out calibrations, Model 2, which was developed with the data for the peptides as well as Phe, yielded a low correlation coefficient (R = 0.533) for the prediction of the bitterness, while Model 3 developed with only the peptide data provided better correlation coefficients (R = 0.807 and 0.724 for R(caf) and log 1/T values, respectively). The correlation coefficients for prediction were 0.975 (R(caf) values) and 0.874 (log 1/T values) for Model 4, which was developed using subtracted spectral data (spectra of peptides with higher R(caf) values minus spectra of peptides with lower R(caf) values). Examination of the PLS regression coefficients at wavenumbers most highly correlated with bitterness revealed the importance of hydrophobicity and peptide length on bitterness. This study indicates the potential of FT-Raman spectroscopy as a useful tool for predicting bitterness of peptides and amino acids.     

Spatially resolved absolute diffuse reflectance measurements for noninvasive determination of the optical scattering and absorption coefficients of biological tissue

The absorption and transport scattering coefficients of biological tissues determine the radial dependence of the diffuse reflectance that is due to a point source. A system is described for making remote measurements of spatially resolved absolute diffuse reflectance and hence noninvasive, noncontact estimates of the tissue optical properties. The system incorporated a laser source and a CCD camera. Deflection of the incident beam into the camera allowed characterization of the source for absolute reflectance measurements. It is shown that an often used solution of the diffusion equation cannot be applied for these measurements. Instead, a neural network, trained on the results of Monte Carlo simulations, was used to estimate the absorption and scattering coefficients from the reflectance data. Tests on tissue-simulating phantoms with transport scattering coefficients between 0.5 and 2.0 mm(-1) and absorption coefficients between 0.002 and 0.1 mm(-1) showed the rms errors of this technique to be 2.6% for the transport scattering coefficient and 14% for the absorption coefficients. The optical properties of bovine muscle, adipose, and liver tissue, as well as chicken muscle (breast), were also measured ex vivo at 633 and 751 nm. For muscle tissue it was found that the Monte Carlo simulation did not agree with experimental measurements of reflectance at distances less than 2 mm from the incident beam.