Development of analysis tools for social,economic and ecological effects of water reuse

The full implementation of the Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive (91/271/EEC) in Europe will contribute to obtain treated wastewaters of quite high quality that could be reused for certain applications or improved by polishing steps for uses with higher quality requirements. Even though reclaimed water reuse is currently implemented in many European countries, mainly for irrigation, its potential has not yet been exploited in many areas. In fact, a decisive factor to achieve a higher percentage of water reuse is the establishment of effective incentives, which in many instances will be of either an economic or a regulatory nature. The limiting factor for water reuse can in many circumstances be the quality of the water available linked to the treatment processes (technology) and potential hazards for secondary users. In any case, its economic viability needs a careful cost-benefit analysis for the various parties involved to be carried out. However, some water reuse implementation projects have failed because some other key factors, such as social awareness or associated ecological effects, were not accounted for. Thus, the consideration of regulatory, economic, technological, social and environmental factors seems essential to successfully accomplish a reclaimed water reuse project. Feasibility studies can contribute to obtain the success in the implementation of a water reuse project. Within AQUAREC a feasibility study methodology for the performance of water reuse projects has been developed, considering the above mentioned key factors and providing the tools for their analysis. These guidelines aim at assisting the different stakeholders (administration, engineering companies, water management bodies, etc.) involved in the implementation of a water reuse programme in a specific area. AQUAREC Handbook on Feasibility Studies for Water Reuse Systems, publicly available, deals with all information needs necessary to successfully face a water reuse project. Background information data collection support, technology options evaluation or environmental impact assessment guidelines are offered in this publication. Furthermore, the assessment methodologies and indicators for social, economic and environmental factors are also provided. Last but not least, cost effectiveness analysis methodologies and technology validation are also addressed.     

内蒙地区城市污水回用作电厂循环冷却水的可行性研究

污水回用是缓解我国水资源紧缺的有效途径之一。本文通过对城市污水回用作电厂循环冷却水时的水质、水量、处理技术及其经济、环境效益的分析,说明了内蒙地区城市污水回用于电厂的可行性。     

污水回用技术及资源化应用

污水回用是解决国内水资源短缺、减少水体污染的重要途径,其不但技术可行、经济合理,且可在工业、农业、建筑、生活等多方面进行资源化利用。介绍了目前常用的几种污水回用技术方法,以及其资源化应用。     

Development and validation of system design principles for water reuse systems

Decision support software (DSS) for Water Treatment for Reuse with Network Distribution (WTRNet) has been developed within the AQUAREC project on “Integrated Concepts for Reuse of Upgraded Wastewater”, under the Fifth European Community Framework Programme. The overall objective of work conducted as part of the AQUAREC project has been the development and validation of system design principles for water reuse systems. The DSS provides an integrated framework for optimisation of treatment and distribution aspects of water reuse and the selection of end-users, and has been used in the development of the design principles. The principle components of the software (simulation and optimisation models) are presented, followed by the discussion on the software validation. A case study is then illustrated, on which WTRNet has been applied to develop least-cost design alternatives. Design principles for water reuse systems that were achieved by applying the WTRNet tool are presented, in which the importance of utilising formal optimisation in determining the most promising design alternatives is demonstrated.     

Applying storm water management in Greek cities: learning from the European experience

This paper is based on the studies forming part of the European research project DayWater, which aims at the promotion of stormwater source control (participating countries: UK, France, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, The Netherlands and Greece). Source control techniques include all techniques (e.g. retention, infiltration, reuse) of stormwater treatment near its source, in contrast to end-of-pipe. In this paper we present: the different stormwater management issues across Europe; the specific stormwater management issues in Greece; source control techniques applied in European cities; Public policies for promoting source control techniques; Strategies of application of the aforementioned techniques and policies in Greek cities. In Greece, the question of stormwater treatment has not yet attracted a lot of attention. Wastewater management, flood prevention and fresh water scarcity issues are given priority instead. However source control stormwater management can contribute to the solution of all these problems. In many European cities source control techniques have been chosen for stormwater treatment because: a) they are less expensive than massive end-of-pipe treatment installations, b) they are more compatible with the natural water cycle, c) they reduce the overall stormwater flow and thus permit the expansion of cities without requesting reconstruction of the existing sewer networks. Different policy instruments (taxes, specific regulations and controls, information campaigns) have been applied in order to promote source control techniques. The main objective of this work is to discuss the possibility of applying similar techniques and policies in Greek cities.     

Abwasser zu Prozesswasser – zwei unterschiedliche Ansätze

Wastewater reuse and recycling will play an increasingly important role in solving future water stress worldwide. Water of high quality and purity is an indispensable raw material for industry in many production steps, so the availability of water is a decisive location factor for industry. Innovative concepts for wastewater reuse and recycling within the framework of operator models based on many years of know-how lead to the conservation of scarce water resources and to a sustainable and financially attractive water supply. As the presented reference plants show, ecologically and economically advantageous solutions can be created for municipalities, industry, and water suppliers.     

Mekorot's research activity in technological improvements for the production of unrestricted irrigation quality effluents

Israel is a country situated in a semi-arid zone with insufficient natural water resources. Due to the excessive abstraction as compared to water availability, some of the seashore aquifers have been depleted and there is a danger of excessive salinity in the aquifers. Wastewater effluent reuse and desalination have become the main alternative sources of water to compensate for the future water shortage. The main reuse activity in Israel is agricultural irrigation (65% of the connected sewage in Israel is reused for this purpose), while most technological efforts are spent for the improvement of unrestricted irrigation quality water. This paper presents the recent years' research activity, in Mekorot National Water Co., in tertiary effluent treatment and effluent desalination in order to achieve high quality water suitable for unrestricted agricultural reuse as well as for public park irrigation, industrial reuse and aquifer salinity reduction.     

Wastewater minimization in multipurpose batch plants with a regeneration unit: Multiple contaminants

Wastewater minimization can be achieved by employing water reuse opportunities. This paper presents a methodology to address the problem of wastewater minimization by extending the concept of water reuse to include a wastewater regenerator. The regenerator purifies wastewater to such a quality that it can be reused in other operations. This further increases water reuse opportunities in the plant, thereby significantly reducing freshwater demand and effluent generation. The mathematical model determines the optimum batch production schedule that achieves the minimum wastewater generation within the same framework. The model was applied to two case studies involving multiple contaminants and wastewater reductions of 19.2% and 26% were achieved.     

Development of integrated water reuse strategies

Recurring droughts throughout the last decades have revealed that water supply is often insufficiently balanced to the demand and thus vulnerable to extreme climatic events and structural or seasonal demand peaks. In the context of a more sustainable water management, water reclamation and reuse appears to be an alternative dependable water resource. This paper, which was worked out in the frame of the AQUAREC project aims to develop a water reuse strategy based on the anticipation of major factors that promote or slow down the development of water reuse. The investigations distinguish between substantial issues related to the measurable variables of water management such as water availability and demand and the analysis of normative issues as laid down in legislation, guidelines and reflected by the institutional settings. Moreover, water reuse particularly faces the challenge to comply with the precautionary principle and affords a robust risk management to adequately response to the objections of the public. In this context the importance of establishing a best management practice framework and increasing public awareness of the water cycle have to be emphasised as two important aspects in strategic planning of water reuse. A range of supportive measures is recommended to fix water reuse in integrated water management and to recognise its beneficial effects. Different policy options and opportunities to achieve this are discussed.     

Advancement in treatment of wastewater: Fate of emerging contaminants

The scarcity of industrial and domestic use water has become an important issue as industrial operations and localized pollution have burgeoned over the last decade. Wastewater (WW) treatment for recycling and reuse is gaining importance as an alternate source of water supply to circumvent water shortages. Wastewater treatment requires thorough planning, design, construction, and management of treatment facilities in order to discharge the treated water to the aquatic environment or for recycling and reuse. One detrimental effect of growing populations and urbanization has been the release of many persistent emerging contaminants (ECs) to the environment, mainly detected in WW. The entry of these ECs to the aquatic environment through wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) may cause different ecological risks such as reproductive toxicity, endocrine disruption, and microbial resistance. The quantification of ECs (in ng or pg level) in complex matrices, such as WW samples recognized through non‐target screening approaches, has played a key role in the planning and design of water treatment facilities. The purpose of this review is to provide information about advancements in wastewater treatment technologies such as constructed wetland (CW) and advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) and the fate of emerging contaminants during these treatments. Further, this review also reports the ecological effects of these contaminants and their by‐products formed during various advanced WW treatment processes. The review also discusses advancements in different analytical techniques for the analysis of ECs in WW.     

污泥在建筑材料及土壤等领域应用浅析

随着城市经济的发展和污水净化率的提高,城市污水处理厂产生的污泥量也将大大增加。秦皇岛市作为沿海旅游城市,污水处理在河北省起步较早,污泥的处理处置及资源化研究也较为领先。特别是秦皇岛绿港污泥处理厂于2009年4月底开始运行,实现了污泥减量化、稳定化、无害化处理。由于该市得天独厚的条件,在建筑材料、土壤等领域污泥资源化具有广阔的发展空间。     

石化污水回用技术应用现状及展望

石化行业是国民经济支柱行业,也是用水及排污大户,污水回用是彻底解决此行业水资源不足、污水排放量大引起水环境污染问题的根本途径。介绍了国内外石化污水回用所采用的主要技术和现状,分析了石化污水回用中的存在问题以及需要改进的方面,并展望了一些新型处理技术在石化污水回用的应用前景。     

Water Reuse Fit for Purpose by a Sustainable Industrial Wastewater Management Concept

Water shortage is often a challenge for industrial park developments. To ensure a more sustainable water supply, the Industrial Wastewater Management Concept with a focus on Reuse (IW²MC→R) provides a strategy to meet the challenges. Main requirements to achieve water reuse fit for purpose are optimized wastewater treatment, an optimized sewer and pipe system, and an innovative water quality monitoring concept. To evaluate water‐reuse concepts, a reuse factor is calculated, which relates to all wastewater inflows to the central wastewater treatment plant and all reuse‐water flows.     

城市污水再生与景观河道利用工艺方案探讨

通过对相关案例和水质标准的分析,阐述深度处理和生态净化对污水景观河道回用的重要意义;提出改善回灌河道水质和确保生态安全的城市污水“三级处理＋生态净化＋河道修复”工艺;以宁波市南区污水处理厂污水再生回用工程工艺设计为例,从河道水体现状、再生水水质水量、投资与效益及配套保障措施等方面,探讨采用该工艺进行城市污水尾水再生和景观河道回灌,实现生态环境利用的技术经济可行性.     

Pertraction of xylene isomers using cyclodextrin-containing membranes: mass transport mechanism and modelling

The use of water across Europe varies on a country and regional level due to different climates, cultures, economies, and natural as well as political circumstances. All European countries have the following concerns in common: how to deal with water, how to satisfy the water demand for households, industry and agriculture, and how to protect the aquatic environment and ecosystems. Nowadays, wastewater reuse is becoming an economically and environmentally sound method for integrated water management. The implementation of wastewater reclamation, recycling and reuse promotes the preservation of limited water resources and becomes an attractive option for conserving and extending available water supplies. On the basis of wastewater availability for supplemental applications prior to discharge or disposal, water reuse appears to be a suitable practice with potentially beneficial use. This paper describes the potential for greater wastewater reuse in the Czech Republic. On the basis of a country-wide analysis of the water management situation, different regions were identified with particular water stress problems. The first water stressed region was identified on the basis of insufficient surface water quality where most of the rivers were ranked into the water quality category V. This region is known as an industrial area, and hence there is a possibility to reuse wastewater for industrial purposes. The second investigated region is in a rain shadow area and can be characterised as water stressed in terms of climatic conditions. This area is in the south of Moravia, which is famous for agricultural production, and there is a potential to reuse wastewater for agricultural purposes.     

Setting health based targets for water reuse (in agriculture)

WHO published in 1989 the first Guidelines for the Safe Use of Wastewater and Excreta in Agriculture and Aquaculture that were widely used. Since that time, more experience has been gained and more evidence is produced. The new WHO guidelines on water reuse in agriculture, recently published, provide all the basic information on the health risks, and how to set health based targets, by quantifying the risk and developing pathogen reduction targets. Furthermore, an analysis of the health protection measures is included, making reference to the wastewater treatment, crop restrictions, wastewater application methods and human exposure control.     

萤石浮选废水零排放工程设计

针对萤石浮选废水处理回用的问题,分析、总结了混凝沉淀法处理萤石浮选废水的可行性及注意事项,通过选用萤石浮选废水高效絮凝剂,改进废水处理工艺,实现了萤石浮选废水的100%回用,做到了废水的零排放,保护了周围环境和节约了水资源。     

New quality criteria in wastewater reuse : The case of Gran Canaria

Wastewater reuse plays a key role in this vital cycle of water because it is able to reduce the wastewater spilled. Simultaneously, the supply of water for specific uses is increased. A new regulation (Royal Decree 1620/2007) came into force in Spain in December 2007 and regulates the basic conditions for the wastewater reuse and establishes the required criteria of quality to waters according to use.In the present paper, different kinds of tertiary treatments in reuse of wastewater are described. We focused on the applied tertiary treatments in most wastewater treatment plants of Gran Canaria Island. Particularly, we analysed Hoya del Pozo wastewater treatment plant due to its wide number of technologies and processes.Finally, we reviewed the quality criteria used in the regenerated waters, in agreement with the new regulations.     

Health and safety aspects of irrigation of raw-eaten food crops with reused water

The Monterey Wastewater Reclamation Study for Agriculture (MWRSA) has Completed its first year of a five-year pilot effort to investigate and to demonstrate feasibility of food crop irrigation with reclaimed municipal effluent. The project comprises a 96-plot field trial for statistical comparison of three water treatments: an eight-hectare commercial scale farm for demonstration of water reclamation for growing lettuce, broccoli, cauliflower, celery, and artichokes; an aerosol study, a virus assay, market studies, and other ancillary investigations. First year results preliminarily indicate that the main hypothesis of the study will prove to be true, i.e. “raw-eaten food crops irrigated with properly treated municipal wastewater effluent are safe for human consumption”.     

Transport properties of ion-exchange membrane systems in LysHCl solutions

This paper focuses on how characterising and understanding the dissonance between stakeholder perceptions of risk could be of value when carrying out participatory planning of water reuse projects. Knowledge of the variation in stakeholders' concerns regarding risk from the onset of a participatory process, could breed insight and help guide the knowledge requirements of the stakeholder groups involved. The research input for this paper was generated from a questionnaire survey investigating stakeholders' views regarding wider participation in water resources management with particular regard to the following points: (1) What they considered to be the most important risks of a wastewater reuse project or scheme; (2) Individual expectations with regard to the coincidence level of risk perception between the stakeholder groups. Responses from four stakeholder groups (regulators, researchers, managers and domestic customers) are presented. Perspectives on the risks and uncertainties inherent in a project will probably vary from one stakeholder to another. The research findings suggest that levels of expected agreement regarding risk vary between different stakeholder groups. There is also a marked variability in expectations by risk type. Identification and characterisation of individual stakeholders' expectations and knowledge requirements with regard to risk could therefore help to form a sound basis for equitable deliberation, understanding and decision making within a social learning environment.