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1.
The relative stability of four glass-bead thermistors has been analyzed for 44 months to determine if thermistors have sufficient relative stability to be used as feedback sensors for milliKelvin levels of temperature control. The thermistors were measured at 20 ± 0.1 °C using commercial two-wire instrumentation. The thermistors have a nominal resistance of 12.5 kΩ and sensitivity of −4.5%/°C at 20°C. They are nested together inside several layers of thermal resistance and capacitance, which are held at nominal 20°C with a temperature-controlled, recirculating air chamber. After correction for instrumentation drift with two high-stability reference resistors, the average relative rms drift of the thermistors is 50 ± 15 μK, with an rms fitted drift rate of 0.26 ± 0.16 μK/week.  相似文献   

2.
A full factorial experimental investigation has been carried out into factors affecting the resistance of a commercial acrylic/melamine automotive clearcoat to erosion by silica sand particles. The factor variables and their ranges were: particle size 125–425 μm; temperature 30°C–65°C; impact angle 30°–90°; particle velocity 35 m s−1–55 m s−1; and the baking process applied to the coating. An empirical linear regression model for the erosion response of the coating with R2adj=97.5% was generated from the data. The regression coefficients of this model quantify the relative strengths of the effects of each of the factors. Several interactions between the factor variables were identified. In particular, the glass transition of the coating, which occurs at 40°C, has a significant effect on its response to erosion. The study has allowed the combinations of conditions that would be of most concern for automotive paint users to be identified.  相似文献   

3.
The erosion-corrosion characteristics of a 2.25 Cr-1 Mo steel at low particle velocities and elevated temperatures were determined using a nozzle type laboratory erosion tester. The tests were performed with 180–360 μm angular alumina particles at 60° angle of impingement at low particle velocities of 2.6–8.2 m/s and in the temperature interval 20–600°C. The steel was tested both in the as-received condition as well as in two preoxidized conditions. The erosion-corrosion rate of the steel, both in the as-received and in the preoxidized conditions, was found to increase with increasing particle velocity. In contrast, the wastage rates were relatively independent of temperature in the temperature range investigated, the only exception being specimens exposed to the lowest particle velocity (2.6 m/s) at the very highest temperature, i.e. 600°C, which displayed a drastic increase in wastage. Specimens preoxidized at 700°C exhibited a somewhat higher erosion rate compared with non-preoxidized specimens and specimens preoxidized at 500°C. Microscopy revealed four different major wastage mechanisms, i.e. (i) plastic deformation, cracking and micro chipping of surface material of a size corresponding to the area impinged by eroding particles, (ii) chipping of somewhat larger oxide fragments (up to 10–15 μm in diameter), (iii) chipping or spalling of relatively large oxide fragments (up to 30–50 μm in diameter), and (iv) spalling along the steel-oxide interface or within an oxide layer due to cohesive failure, of larger (up to 500 μm in diameter) oxide layer fragments. In the present study extensive spalling was only observed for non-preoxidized specimens exposed to the lowest particle velocity (2.6 m/s) and the two highest specimen temperatures (550°C and 600°C).  相似文献   

4.
Precision metrology, lithography and machining systems will soon require sub-nanometer tolerances in order to meet the evolving needs of industry. This, in turn, requires thermal control of large environmental enclosures with sub-millidegree single-point stability and control of temperature gradients to several millidegrees. In order to optimize the system's thermal controls, it is essential to measure the open-loop transfer function. We report a technique that obtains the open-loop transfer function by utilizing a dynamic signal analyzer to perform a closed-loop frequency response measurement of the thermal system. Based on the transfer function, we designed a PI-lead compensation controller and achieved one-sigma air temperature stability of less than 1 m°C at a single point over 2 h. In order to rapidly map temperature gradients over large regions inside the 7 m3-volume enclosure, we have developed a measurement scheme that involves mechanically scanning a network of thermistors. Accurate cross calibration of the thermistors and a study of self-heating effects on temperature measurement in moving air have also been performed, which assures the relative accuracy of the thermistors is less than 1 m°C. Comparing temperature gradient maps taken before and after control improvements shows improved temperature stability over the mapped volumes.  相似文献   

5.
A multiloop control system has been implemented in a relatively large recirculating air chamber that maintains one-sigma air temperature stability of 3 mK at the outer loop control point. The control system is a modification to a chamber that formerly held air temperature stability of approximately 0.1°C. A continuously running refrigeration system removes the nominal heat load from the air through a cross-flow heat exchanger. The control system maintains temperature stability in the chamber by modulating the power input to a coil heater. Four thermistors in DC bridges are used to generate the feedback signals.  相似文献   

6.
Five commercial hardfacing high chromium cast iron alloys were deposited by flux cored arc-welding method. The solid particle erosion studies were carried out using air blast type erosion test rig with 125–150 μm cement clinker, 125–150 μm blast furnace sinter, 100–150 μm silica sand and 125–150 μm alumina particles at a velocity of 50 m s−1 and at impingement angles of 15–90°. The observed erosion rates were rationalised in terms of relative hardness of erodent particles and ability of erodent particle to cause gross fracture of the carbides. The dependence of erosion rate on impingement angle was found to be quite weak for hardfacing high chromium cast iron alloys. However, significant differences were observed in the ranking of the alloys when eroded with different erodent particles. The presence of large volume fraction of carbides proved to be beneficial to the erosion resistance when the erodent particle were softer than the carbides. With silica sand particles at normal impact and with alumina particles large volume fraction of carbides proved detrimental to the erosion resistance. The operating erosion mechanisms involved small-scale chipping, edge effect, indentation and fracture and fatigue.  相似文献   

7.
For the calibration of relative humidity hygrometers and dew-point hygrometers with an open sensor, a test chamber system was constructed and connected to a dew-point generator. The system includes several small chambers connected in series. By reversing the flow direction, humidity and temperature gradients in the test chamber system are monitored during calibration measurements. This paper reports the construction of the test chamber system and the improvements in the construction and the analysis of the dew-point generator. A full uncertainty analysis is presented. The expanded uncertainty of the dew-point temperature and the relative humidity with the coverage factor k=2 are from ±0.05°C to ±0.08°C and from ±0.1%rh to ±1.0%rh, respectively. Although the dew-point temperature range is from −40°C to +77°C, the limits for the temperature range of the test chamber system are −20°C and +60°C. The system was not tested with relative humidity values lower than 10% or higher than 95%.  相似文献   

8.
Polycrystalline α-Fe has been eroded at 30° and 90° with glass spheres of average diameters 70 μm and 200 μm in the velocity range 61–122 m s−1. Detailed studies of the influence of the impact variables on the erosion rate as well as scanning electron microscopy studies of the eroded surfaces have been performed. It was observed that “breaking” waves developed on erosion at 30° and hills and valleys at 90°. Several different material loss processes that operate at various positions within waves, hills and valleys have been identified. It was clear that most material loss processes involved extensive localized shear and required the surface to become “conditioned” by a specific number of impacts before material loss began.  相似文献   

9.
The present investigation has been made to study the superplastic deformation behavior of Ti–6Al–4V alloy based on the theory of inelastic deformation, and to analyze the boundary sliding characteristics using transmission electron microscopy. Flow characteristics for the microstructures of 2.5–16 μm grain sizes were analyzed by the load relaxation tests at various temperatures ranging from 600 to 927°C. The results showed that at relatively low temperatures such as 600°C the grain matrix deformation was dominant and found to be consistent with the state equation based on the dislocation dynamics. On the contrary, above the temperature of 800°C, the grain boundary sliding became dominant resulting in the change of curvature in the stress–strain rate curves, which was more pronounced in the finer microstructures. However, the deformation mode changes from grain boundary sliding to grain matrix deformation with the increase in grain size as evidenced by transmission electron microscopy.  相似文献   

10.
A methodology has been developed for the numerical determination of the material constants in the uniaxial creep constitutive equations based on continuum damage mechanics. The method developed overcomes former problems with convergence, and is based on a normalization technique. Temperature variation is included in the model.An algorithm for the digitization of continuous creep curves has been developed that enables a true representation of uniaxial creep behaviour using only 20 data points. Consequently large amounts of data covering many tests may therefore be stored in data bases, and, the method leads to short CPU times for fitting the material model.The algorithm for digitization and the constant determination methods have been applied to data for alloy 800H at 850°C; and, to at 550°C. For both materials good comparisons have been obtained between experimental and predicted uniaxial creep behaviour. The material model has been shown to be suitable for large strain behaviour.Uniaxial creep tests have been carried out on grade 1 cast copper nominal composition 99.99% Cu, 0.005% O2, B.S. 1035–1037 at 150, 250 and 500°C, and an anisothermal continuum damage mechanics creep model developed for the temperature range 150–500°C. Model predictions are in good agreement with test results.  相似文献   

11.
Apparatus is described for the measurement of the approximate axial internal stress distribution in wires typically 0·3–0·4 mm diameter. A sensitive optical system measures the change of length of the wire as its diameter is reduced at a rate of about 0·3 μm per minute by dissolution in 0·012 M nitric acid maintained at a constant temperature. The change of area of cross section of the wire is deduced from measurement of its electrical resistance. The adoption of a continuous thinning process makes it possible to measure the internal stress at the original wire surface. The method is not able to take account of the effect on the axial strain of the relief of circumferential and radial stresses. This leads to the axial stress being underestimated by about 30%. Internal stress measurements are reported on patented and drawn steel wire which confirm the wide range of internal stress intensity that can be generated in this material by changing and drawing conditions.  相似文献   

12.
The present investigation is aimed at understanding the influence of the size and quantity of ferrite plus martensite on mechanical and abrasive wear properties in a 0.19 wt% C dual phase steel. The results indicate that the mechanical properties like strength, ductility and impact, as well as abrasion resistance of the samples are greatly influenced by the material and test conditions. For example, the samples involving prior annealing showed higher ductility but less strength over the normalized specimens. Also, the increasing intercritical annealing temperature led to superior strength associated with reduced ductility. The wear rate increased with load and abrasive size due to a larger depth of cut made by the abrasive medium. The wear rate decreased as sliding distance increased. The steel subjected to prior normalizing treatment attained superior wear resistance to that of the one subjected to prior annealing treatment. The wear rate also decreased with increasing intercritical annealing temperature from 765 to 805 °C with an exception that the steel treated at 805 °C exhibited wear rate comparable to the one treated at 765 °C when tested against coarser size (40 μm) abrasive.  相似文献   

13.
The friction and reciprocating wear of 316 stainless steel in air has been investigated in the temperature range 20–500°C at constant load using a standard pin and flat geometry. A marked change in wear behaviour occurred above 300°C. From room temperature to 300°C the wear rate decreased slowly with increasing temperature. This was accompanied by an increasing fraction of oxide in the wear debris. At 300°C the debris consisted entirely of oxide with the α Fe2 O3 structure. In this temperature range wear can be explained essentially in terms of mild wear. Above 300°C the wear rate decreased by an order of magnitude and was accompanied by a severely distorted wear surface. There was a high proportion of metallic particles in the wear debris. The surface roughening occurs at an early stage of wear and stops when glazed oxide regions form. The low wear rate is explained in terms of the high hardness of the glazed load-bearing areas and re-incorporation of wear debris into the wear scar.  相似文献   

14.
Influence of temperature on erosion by a cavitating liquid jet   总被引:1,自引:1,他引:0  
Shuji Hattori  Yuki Goto  Takaki Fukuyama 《Wear》2006,260(11-12):1217-1223
The influence of water temperature on cavitation erosion has previously been studied using a vibratory apparatus, but no researches have been conducted at a constant cavitation number in flow condition. This study deals with the influence of the water temperature on cavitation erosion using a cavitating jet apparatus. The optimum stand-off distance at 25 °C was 11, 15, 21 and 25 mm at cavitation number of σ = 0.03, 0.025, 0.02 and 0.015, respectively, and was almost the same as that of a guideline in the ASTM G134 standard. The optimum stand-off distance at 75 °C is similar to that at 25 °C. The erosion rate increases with the liquid temperature and reaches a peak, followed by a decrease. The relative temperature was defined as 0 °C for freezing temperature and 100 °C for boiling temperature of pressurized water. The peak appears at the approximate average of freezing and boiling relative temperatures. The erosion rate increases by 1%/ °C between 5 and 45 °C of relative temperatures, and decreases by 2%/ °C between 45 and 80 °C.  相似文献   

15.
The objective of this study was to analyse the erosion of API 5L X65 pipe steel whose microstructure consisted of ferrite and martensite obtained by quenching from intercritical temperature (770°C). Jet impingement tests with sand–water slurry were used. The changes in mechanical properties, caused by heat treatment carried out, did not induce changes in either the mechanism or erosion resistance. The erosion rate increased with angle of attack until 30° and later decreased until 90°. The microtexture of the eroded surfaces, at angles of attack of 30° and 90°, were similar for both conditions and were composed of craters and platelets at several stages of evolution. The erosion mechanism was by extrusion with the forming and forging of platelets.  相似文献   

16.
A photoelectric polarimeter has been constructed for the purposes of calibrating polarimetric standards and for redetermining the value for the specific rotation of sucrose in solution. The polarimeter has full circle rotation capability with sensitivity of 0.6 arc-sec (3 μrad) and in specific measurements an estimated accuracy of ±2 arc-sec at the 99% confidence level. The polarimeter uses both arc lamp and laser sources. Sample temperatures can be controlled to within ±0.5 mK per day at, or around, 20°C, and six liquid, solid or gaseous samples may be simultaneously housed. Measurements of all six samples may be completed in a few minutes. In this paper we present the design details of this polarimetric system. The design required the careful application of high precision manufacturing techniques coupled closely with metrology throughout the manufacturing process  相似文献   

17.
Amkee Kim  Ilhyun Kim 《Wear》2009,267(11):1922-1926
The solid particle erosion behavior of epoxy base unidirectional and multidirectional carbon fiber reinforced plastic composites was investigated. The erosion rates of these composites were evaluated at various impingement angles (15–90°) with a particle velocity of 70 m/s. Irregular SiC particles with an average diameter of 80 μm was used. The dependence of impingement angle on the erosive wear resembled the conventional ductile behavior with maximum erosion rate at 15–30° impingement angle. The erosion rate of unidirectional composites at acute impingement angle was higher for [90] than for [45] and [0] while the difference disappeared at normal impingement angle (90°). On the other hand, the erosion rates of multidirectional laminated composites ([0/90], [45/−45], [90/30/−30] and [0/60/−60]) were not much influenced by the fiber orientation except for 15° impingement angle.  相似文献   

18.
Constant-amplitude, flexural-fatigue tests have been carried out over the frequency range 8–100 Hz and the temperature range 293–373°K on a commercial zinc-aluminium alloy of basically eutectoid composition. This alloy is highly superplastic at 530°K, when the strain-rate sensitivity of the flow stress index, m, 0·5. At 293°K some residual superplasticity exists and this manifests itself as a frequency effect in the fatigue behaviour. This effect is almost certainly the result of room-temperature, strainrate sensitivity; it is shown by the fact that when the superplastic microstructure is destroyed, the frequency effect disappears. Finally, it is shown that the model proposed by Morrow successfully predicts the fatigue life of this alloy.  相似文献   

19.
Herein we show that dry sliding, in air, in the 25–550 °C temperature range, of the novel Ta2AlC/20 vol.% Ag and Cr2AlC/20 vol.% Ag composites against Ni-based superalloys (SAs) and alumina led to the formation of steady-state tribofilms whose thicknesses and compositions varied depending on sliding conditions. At elevated temperatures, under both isothermal and thermocyclic conditions, relatively thick (>0.5 μm) well-compacted “glaze” lubricious tribofilms were developed as a result of joint action of tribo-chemical and tribo-mechanical factors involving repeated tribo-oxidation, mixing, fracturing, sintering, etc. They were mainly composed of oxidized constituents from both counterparts (if slid vs. SA) or solely from MAX-Ag ones (vs. Al2O3) and possessed a fine multi-layered microstructure, i.e. a more oxidized thin outermost layer and a less oxidized carbide-containing thicker inner layer. During thermocycling the tribofilms adapted to 25–550 °C temperature variations and preserved their primary macro- and microstructure, hardness, good adhesion to the matrix and lubricating characteristics. Consequently, the tribological properties of MAX-Ag/SA tribocouples did not deteriorate, but slightly improved with sliding distance. A possible mechanism of tribofilm generation and their transformations at various temperatures is discussed. The effect of SA and alumina counterparts on the formation and degradation of the tribofilms are also discussed.  相似文献   

20.
This paper presents the design of a small-scale nanopositioner, the μHexFlex, which is comprised of a six-axis compliant mechanism and three pairs of two-axis thermo-mechanical micro-actuators. In this paper, we cover the modeling, design and fabrication of the μHexFlex. Specific attention is given to: (1) the use of constraint-based design in generating the compliant mechanism design, (2) the modeling of the actuators, and (3) the system model which links the actuator input and mechanism response. The measured, quasi-static performance of a 3 mm diameter prototype shows a maximum range of 8.4 μm × 12.8 μm × 8.8 μm and 19.2 mrad × 17.5 mrad × 33.2 mrad (1.1° × 1.0° × 1.9°). Experimental results indicate that a constant mechanical/electrical material property system model may be used to predict the position and orientation over a range of 3.0 μm × 4.4 μm × 3.0 μm and 6.3 mrad × 6.3 mrad × 8.7 mrad (0.36° × 0.36° × 0.5°). The dynamic characteristics of the device were investigated experimentally. Experimental results show a lowest natural frequency of 4 kHz. The resolution characteristics of the device have been measured at 1 Å/mV. The device was created using deep reactive ion etching (DRIE). Bulk fabrication costs are estimated at less than $ 2 per device.  相似文献   

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