Protective effects of an aqueous extract from pepino (Solanum muricatum Ait.) in diabetic mice

BACKGROUND: This study analysed the content of ascorbic acid, phenolic acids and flavonoids in aqueous and ethanol extracts of pepino (Solanum muricatum Ait.), and examined the protective effects of pepino aqueous extract (PAE) in a mouse model of diabetes. PAE at 1, 2 and 4% was supplied for 5 weeks. RESULTS: Aqueous and ethanol extracts had similar levels of total phenolic acids, but PAE had a higher content of ascorbic acid and total flavonoids than the ethanol extract. PAE treatments at 2% and 4% significantly lowered plasma glucose level (P < 0.05); however, only the 4% PAE significantly elevated plasma insulin level at week 5 (P < 0.05). PAE treatments significantly decreased the levels of malonyldialdehyde and reactive oxygen species in kidney (P < 0.05); however, only the 2% and 4% treatments significantly reduced oxidised glutathione formation, increased glutathione level, and retained renal glutathione peroxidase and catalase activities (P < 0.05). PAE treatments at 2% and 4% significantly lowered renal interleukin (IL)‐6 and tumour necrosis factor‐α levels (P < 0.05); however, only the 4% treatments significantly diminished renal IL‐1β and levels of monocyte chemoattractant protein‐1 (P < 0.05). PAE treatments at 4% significantly decreased aldose reductase activity and sorbitol production in kidney (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: These findings support the suggestion that pepino aqueous extract could attenuate the progression of diabetes via its antioxidative, anti‐inflammatory and antiglycative effects. Copyright © 2011 Society of Chemical Industry     

Studies on protein and its high‐molecular‐weight subunit composition in relation to chapati‐making quality of Indian wheat cultivars

In order to predict the suitability of wheat for chapati making, 15 Indian wheat cultivars were studied for various protein characteristics in relation to chapati‐making quality. The cultivars varied considerably in their protein characteristics and chapati‐making potential. Results clearly indicated that both quantitative and qualitative characteristics of proteins influenced the chapati‐making potential of cultivars. Puffed height, the important qualitative parameter of chapati, was positively correlated with protein content (r = 0.62, p < 0.05), gluten content (r = 0.79, p < 0.01), sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) sedimentation value (r = 0.57, p < 0.05) and Glu‐1 quality scores of high‐molecular‐weight (HMW) subunits (r = 0.66, p < 0.01). Overall quality score of chapati was positively correlated with gluten content (r = 0.64, p < 0.01), SDS sedimentation value (r = 0.60, p < 0.05) and Glu‐1 score (r = 0.58, p < 0.05). HMW subunit composition varied considerably among cultivars. Cultivars having 5 + 10 subunits at the Glu‐1D chromosome, a protein content of about 130 g kg^?1 and SDS sedimentation value around 75 ml yielded excellent chapatis, while those having 2 + 12 subunits, a protein content of about 115 g kg^?1 and SDS sedimentation value around 55 ml resulted in poor chapatis. Interestingly, the presence of the 1BL/1RS chromosome in cultivars had no adverse effect on chapati quality. © 2003 Society of Chemical Industry     

Flaxseed oil reduces the growth of human breast tumors (MCF‐7) at high levels of circulating estrogen

Flaxseed (FS) has been shown to attenuate mammary tumorigenesis, possibly due to its high α‐linolenic acid (ALA)‐rich oil (FSO) content. This study determined the effect of FSO on the growth of estrogen receptor‐positive human breast tumors (MCF‐7) in ovariectomized athymic mice at high premenopausal‐like estrogen (E2) levels. Mice with established MCF‐7 tumors were fed basal diet (control) or basal diet supplemented with FSO (40 g/kg) for 8 wks. Compared with control, FSO reduced tumor size (33%, p<0.05) and tumor cell proliferation (38%, p<0.05) and increased apoptosis (110%, p<0.001). FSO also reduced human epidermal growth factor receptor‐2 (79%, p<0.05) and epidermal growth factor receptor (57%, p=0.057) expression, which then may have led to a reduction in Akt (54%, p<0.05) and phosphorylation of mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) to phosphorylated MAPK (pMAPK, 28%, p<0.05). Insulin‐like growth factor‐1 receptor, vascular endothelial growth factor receptor, MAPK and phosphorylated Akt were not affected. FSO increased (p<0.001) serum ALA, eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid and, in vitro, ALA reduced MCF‐7 cell proliferation (33%, p<0.001). Thus, FSO regressed estrogen receptor‐positive human breast tumorigenesis at high E2 levels via downregulation of the growth factor mediated pathway, likely through its ALA content, and may explain the anti‐tumorigenicity of FS.     

Dietary Trans Fats Enhance Doxorubicin‐Induced Cardiotoxicity in Mice

This study investigated the combined effects of trans fat diet (TFD) and doxorubicin upon cardiac oxidative, inflammatory, and coagulatory stress. TFD increased trans fatty acid deposit in heart (P < 0.05), and decreased protein C and antithrombin‐III activities in circulation (P < 0.05). TFD plus doxorubicin treatment elevated activities of plasminogen activator inhibitor‐1, lactate dehydrogenase, and creatine phosphokinase (P < 0.05). This combination also raised xanthine oxidase activity, and enhanced cardiac levels of reactive oxygen species, interleukin (IL)‐6, IL‐10, tumor necrosis factor‐alpha, and monocyte chemoattractant protein‐1 than TFD or doxorubicin treatment alone (P < 0.05). TFD alone increased cardiac nuclear factor kappa B (NF‐κB) activity (P < 0.05), but failed to affect expression of NF‐κB and mitogen‐activated protein kinase (MAPK) (P > 0.05). Doxorubicin treatment alone augmented cardiac activity, mRNA expression, and protein production of NF‐κB and MAPK (P < 0.05). TFD plus doxorubicin treatment further upregulated cardiac expression of NF‐κB p65, p‐p38, and p‐ERK1/2 (P < 0.05). These findings suggest that TFD exacerbates doxorubicin‐induced cardiotoxicity.     

Performance,carcass cut‐up and fatty acids deposition in broilers fed different levels of pellet‐processed flaxseed

The effects of flaxseed (FS) processing and inclusion levels on broiler performance and fatty acid deposition were examined. FS was provided as whole seed, ground or pellet‐then‐mashed at a dietary level of 0, 12 or 14% during days 1 to 21. These levels represented control, threshold and over‐threshold, respectively. During days 22 to 40, the threshold level was increased to 15%, while the over‐threshold level increased to 17%. After 21 days of feeding, the performance of birds fed a diet with 12% pellet‐then‐mashed FS were comparable (p > 0.05) with those fed mashed control diet, but superior to those fed a diet of whole FS (p < 0.05). There was interaction (p < 0.05) between diet processing and FS level on weight gain, with pellet‐then‐mash processing being more effective at the 12% FS inclusion level than at the 14% level in improving performance. The beneficial processing effect on performance diminished during days 22 to 40. Furthermore, carcass cut‐up percentage was not affected (p > 0.05) by the treatments, except that increased FS level resulted in smaller fat‐pad and larger liver (p < 0.05). Birds deposited omega‐3 (n‐3) fatty acids in breast and thigh muscle the most with higher FS inclusion and pellet‐then‐mash processing. On day 40, the total n‐3 fatty acids made up 22.1 and 24.4% in the muscle lipids of breast and thigh samples from birds fed pellet‐then‐mashed FS at the level of 12% during days 1 to 21 and at the level of 15% during days 22 to 40, respectively. These values were higher (p < 0.05) than those found in birds fed diets of similar FS levels but as whole seed or ground seed. Up to 12% pellet‐processed FS can be incorporated into broiler diets with satisfactory growth, while maximizing n‐3 fatty acid deposition in the tissues. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

A dose–response evaluation of freeze‐dried strawberries independent of fiber content on metabolic indices in abdominally obese individuals with insulin resistance in a randomized,single‐blinded,diet‐controlled crossover trial

Scope : This study evaluated the dose–response relationship of strawberries, an anthocyanin‐rich fruit, on postprandial glucose and insulin concentrations in individuals with insulin resistance (IR), including changes in plasma anthocyanins, markers of oxidative stress, and inflammation. Methods and Results : In a randomized controlled, four‐arm, dose–response, crossover trial, 21 adults with IR consumed a high‐carbohydrate, high‐fat meal with one of four beverages containing 0 g freeze‐dried whole strawberry powder (0g FDS, control), 10, 20, or 40 g FDS, controlled for fiber. Blood was collected at 0 min and at 30 min intervals postmeal until 2 h, then hourly until 6 h. Postmeal insulin concentrations (6 h) were significantly reduced after the 40‐g FDS beverage compared to other beverages (p < 0.05). Postmeal 6 h glucose concentrations were not different, although mean insulin:glucose ratio was significantly different among beverages (p < 0.05). Pelargonidin‐glucuronide was inversely associated with mean insulin concentrations after the 20 and 40 g FDS (p < 0.05). Oxidized low‐density lipoprotein was reduced after 20 g FDS (p < 0.05) and IL‐6 was not different among treatments. Strawberry intake reduced the insulin demand to manage postmeal glucose in obese individuals with IR, which was related to plasma anthocyanin/pelargonidin concentrations. Conclusion : The data support a role of strawberries in improving insulin sensitivity in people with IR.     

The Quality Changes of Postharvest Mulberry Fruit Treated by Chitosan‐g‐Caffeic Acid during Cold Storage

This study aimed to characterize the effects of chitosan‐g‐caffeic acid (CTS‐g‐CA) on improving the quality and extending the shelf life of postharvest mulberry fruit during storage at 4 °C for 18 d. CTS‐g‐CA was enzymatically synthesized using laccase from Pleurotus ostreatus as a catalyst. The synergistic effects of CTS‐g‐CA treatment on mulberry fruit were evaluated using a co‐toxicity factor (cf). The results showed that the rotting rate of CTS‐g‐CA‐treated fruit was 37.67% (compared with that of the control at 97.67%) on day 18. The weight loss and malondialdehyde (MDA) contents of the CTS‐g‐CA‐treated mulberry fruit were significantly lower (P < 0.05) than those of the control, CA, CTS, and CA+CTS treatments. Moreover, the DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging activities of the CTS‐g‐CA treatment were both higher than those of the control. Furthermore, the CTS‐g‐CA treatment also maintained higher levels of main active substances, such as anthocyanins, ascorbic acid, polyphenols and flavones, in mulberry fruit than the other treatments. Therefore, CTS‐g‐CA could be used to improve the quality and extend the shelf life of postharvest mulberry fruit during cold storage.     

Effect of plant polyphenols and ascorbic acid on lipid oxidation,residual nitrite and N‐nitrosamines formation in dry‐cured sausage

The effects of green tea,grape seed polyphenols and ascorbic acid on pH, water activity (a_w), microbiological counts, TBARS, residual nitrite and N‐nitrosamines were determined in dry‐cured sausages during the ripening period. Results showed that TBARS increased gradually during ripening (P < 0.05), but were significantly reduced with plant polyphenols and ascorbic acid (P < 0.05). Green tea polyphenol (GTP) was most effective (P < 0.05) in reducing TBARS. Plant polyphenols and ascorbic acid significantly decreased residual nitrite, ascorbic acid being most effective (P < 0.05). The amount of N‐nitrosamines increased during ripening, but was significantly reduced with plant polyphenols and ascorbic acid (P < 0.05). Plant polyphenols had no significant effects on moisture content, a_w, pH or microbiological counts in dry‐cured sausage during ripening (P > 0.05). It was concluded that plant polyphenols and ascorbic acid were effective in maintaining the quality and safety of dry‐cured sausages.     

Antiglycative and anti-VEGF effects of s-ethyl cysteine and s-propyl cysteine in kidney of diabetic mice

Antiglycative and antivascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) effects of s-ethyl cysteine (SEC), and s-propyl cysteine (SPC) in kidney of diabetic mice were examined. SEC and SPC at 1 and 2 g/L were added to the drinking water for 12 wk. Results showed that diabetic mice with SEC or SPC intake had significantly higher final body weight, lower kidney weight, lower levels of plasma glucose, urinary albumin (UA), and urinary creatinine (UC) (p < 0.05), in which dose-dependent effects were observed in reducing plasma glucose, UA, and UC (p < 0.05). The intake of these compounds significantly and dose-dependently decreased the levels of plasma glycated hemoglobin (HbA1c), renal carboxymethyllysine and urinary glycated albumin (p < 0.05). SEC or SPC intake significantly and dose-dependently diminished renal aldose reductase (AR) activity and enhanced glyoxalase I (GLI) activity (p < 0.05); also significantly decreased renal sorbitol and fructose concentrations (p < 0.05). The intake of SEC or SPC significantly lowered renal VEGF level (p < 0.05), and caused dose-dependent downregulation in AR mRNA expression, and upregulation in GLI mRNA expression (p < 0.05). Our present study suggests the supplement of SEC or SPC might be helpful for the prevention or treatment of diabetic kidney diseases via alleviating renal glycative injury.     

Variety and germination time effect on total β‐glucan,water‐insoluble β‐glucan,water‐soluble β‐glucan components and β‐glucanase levels in improved sorghum varieties SK5912, KSV8 and ICSV400 before and after malting and their relationships to wort viscosity

The effects of variety and germination time on β‐glucan components – total β‐glucan (TBG), water insoluble β‐glucan (WIBG) and water soluble β‐glucan (WSBG) and β‐glucanase (BG) levels – before and after malting in improved sorghum varieties SK5912, KSV8 and ICSV400 and their relationships to wort specific viscosity (SV) were studied. This study was part of efforts to aid local malting and brewing industries in the application of sorghum varieties that are abundantly available to reduce costs. At the fifth day of germination, variety ICSV400 had the lowest TBG, WIBG and WSBG levels in its raw and malt samples. Variety SK5912 had the highest TBG, WIBG and WSBG levels in its raw samples, while variety KSV8 had the highest levels of TBG, WIBG and WSBG in its malt samples. Similarly, variety ICSV400 malts developed the highest BG levels, while the KSV8 malts gave the lowest level. The effect of variety, germination time and variety × germination time interaction was significant (p < 0.05) on the TBG, WIBG and BG levels and was not significant on the WSBG levels. Weak and significant correlation of TBG levels with SV (0.25, p < 0.05 for SK5912; 0.24, p < 0.05 for KSV8; and 0.31, p < 0.05 for ICSV400) was observed in all the samples, suggesting that the low β‐glucan levels may not be primarily and solely responsible for any viscosity impediments associated with sorghum worts during run‐off. With improvement in the effective utilization of sorghum, ICSV400 appeared the most suitable variety for malting and brewing in Nigeria.Copyright © 2016 The Institute of Brewing & Distilling     

Amino acids stimulate Akt phosphorylation,and reduce IL‐8 production and NF‐κB activity in HepG2 liver cells

Hepatic insulin resistance and inflammatory cytokine production contribute to the manifestation of the metabolic syndrome. As amino acids have been implicated in modulating insulin signaling and inflammation, we have investigated the effects of glutamine, leucine and proline on markers of inflammation and insulin sensitivity in HepG2 liver cells. Cells were incubated with IL‐1β (5 ng/mL) to stimulate IL‐8 production. After 24 h, glutamine inhibited IL‐8 production significantly (p<0.05) at 2, 5 and 10 mM (to 82, 73 and 72% of control), whereas leucine reduced IL‐8 production significantly only at 10 mM (66%) and proline at 5 and 10 mM (71 and 52%). Glutamine, leucine and proline all reduced NF‐κB activity after 3 h of IL‐1β stimulation at 2, 5 and 10 mM (p<0.001). Insulin‐induced (1 nM) Akt phosphorylation was reduced in cells treated with tumour necrosis factor‐α (10 ng/mL) for 24 h, but was partly restored by simultaneous incubation with glutamine, leucine and proline (25 mM). Phosphorylation of glycogen synthase kinase‐3β was unaffected by insulin stimulation and amino acid treatment. Our results indicate that glutamine, leucine and proline attenuate IL‐8 production, probably through inhibition of NF‐κB, and that they increase Akt phosphorylation in HepG2 cells.     

Concentration‐dependent antioxidant activities of conjugated linoleic acid and α‐tocopherol in corn oil

BACKGROUND: Antioxidants prevent rancidity (lipid peroxidation) and natural antioxidants, e.g., α‐tocopherol, likely provide additional value to oil‐based food products because of their health benefits. Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) has potential health benefits and may exhibit antioxidant properties. The main aim of this study was to compare the antioxidant efficacy of α‐tocopherol, trans‐10, cis‐12‐CLA and cis‐9, trans‐11‐CLA (in graded concentrations) added to antioxidant‐stripped corn oil. RESULTS: As compared to α‐tocopherol, both CLA isomers displayed significant inhibition of corn oil lipid peroxidation induced by copper. Inhibition of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) were CLA concentration dependent for both isomers but with significant inhibition occurring at 0.1 and 1 ppm of CLA isomers or α‐tocopherol, respectively (P < 0.05). Graded concentrations of α‐tocopherol, and for both CLA isomers and time, had significant effects on TBARS formation (P < 0.0001). There were significant effects in interactions between graded concentrations and time for both CLA isomers (P < 0.0001) but not for α‐tocopherol (P > 0.05). CONCLUSION: CLA compounds could serve as useful food antioxidants and provide additional value because of their potential bioactivity in disease prevention. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry     

Effects of single dose and regular intake of green tea (Camellia sinensis) on DNA damage,DNA repair,and heme oxygenase‐1 expression in a randomized controlled human supplementation study

Regular intake of green tea (Camellia sinensis) lowers DNA damage in humans, but molecular mechanisms of genoprotection are not clear. Protection could be via direct antioxidant effects of tea catechins, but, paradoxically, catechins have pro‐oxidant activity in vitro, and it is hypothesized that mechanisms relate to redox‐sensitive cytoprotective adaptations. We investigated this hypothesis, focusing particularly on effects on the DNA repair enzyme human oxoguanine glycosylase 1 (hOGG1), and heme oxygenase‐1, a protein that has antioxidant and anti‐inflammatory effects. A randomized, placebo‐controlled, human supplementation study of crossover design was performed. Subjects (n = 16) took a single dose (200 mL of 1.5%, w/v) and 7‐days of (2 × 200 mL 1%, w/v per day) green tea (with water as control treatment). Lymphocytic DNA damage was ～30% (p < 0.001) lower at 60 and 120 min after the single dose and in fasting samples collected after 7‐day tea supplementation. Lymphocytic hOGG1 activity was higher (p < 0.0001) at 60 and 120 min after tea ingestion. Significant increases (p < 0.0005) were seen in hOGG1 activity and heme oxygenase‐1 after 7 days. Results indicate that molecular triggering of redox‐sensitive cytoprotective adaptations and posttranslational changes affecting hOGG1 occur in vivo in response to both a single dose and regular intake of green tea, and contribute to the observed genoprotective effects of green tea.     

Anti‐Diabetic Effects of Gynura Bicolor Aqueous Extract in Mice

The effects of Gynura bicolor aqueous extract (GAE) upon glycemic control, coagulation disorder, lipid accumulation, and glycative, oxidative, and inflammatory stresses in diabetic mice were investigated. Mice were treated with streptozotocin to induce type 1 diabetes. Diabetic mice were divided into four groups, consumed GAE at 0%, 0.25%, 0.5%, or 1%. Normal group consumed standard mouse basal diet. After 8‐week treatments, mice were sacrificed after overnight fasting. Results showed that GAE supplement at 0.5% and 1% decreased plasma glucose level and increased plasma insulin level. Diabetes lowered plasma level of protein C and anti‐thrombin III; and raised plasminogen activator inhibitor‐1 activity and fibrinogen level in plasma. GAE supplement at 0.5% and 1% reversed these alterations. Histological data, assayed by Oil Red O stain, indicated that GAE supplement decreased lipid accumulation in liver. GAE supplement at 0.5% and 1% reduced aldose reductase activity in heart and kidney; and lowered the levels of carboxymethyllysine and pentosidine in plasma and two organs. Diabetes decreased glutathione content, and increased reactive oxygen species, interleukin (IL)‐1β, IL‐6, and tumor necrosis factor‐α production in heart and kidney. GAE supplement at three test doses reversed these changes. Diabetes upregulated the mRNA expression of p38 and nuclear factor kappa (NF‐κ)B in heart and kidney. GAE supplement suppressed the mRNA expression of both p38 and NF‐κB. These novel findings suggest that Gynura bicolor is a potent functional food for diabetic prevention or alleviation.     

Changes in amino acid and fatty acid composition during shelf‐life of marinated fish

Quality aspects of marinated fish were examined over a 120 day period. Nutritional quality parameters (proximate composition, fatty acid profile and amino acid profile) were determined. Changes in amino acids and fatty acids were examined in the muscle of marinated fish during storage. Aspartic acid, threonine, proline, glycine, tyrosine and lysine concentrations in marinated anchovy and rainbow trout greatly influenced their quality. Polyunsaturated fatty acid concentrations decreased significantly (p < 0.05) in marinated anchovy but not (p > 0.05) in marinated rainbow trout, while total saturated fatty acid concentrations increased significantly (p < 0.05) in both marinated fish during storage. These changes in fatty acid and amino acid concentrations were found to be useful as an index of freshness and decomposition of marinated fish in storage. Copyright © 2005 Society of Chemical Industry     

Plasma phospholipids n‐3 polyunsaturated fatty acid is associated with metabolic syndrome

The relationship between n‐3 PUFA and metabolic syndrome (MS) is not clear. The aim of this study was to examine relationships between plasma phospholipids (PL) n‐3 PUFA and MS in Chinese subjects. Nine hundred and twenty‐nine subjects were recruited in Hangzhou, China. Two hundred and ten (183 males, 27 females) with MS and 719 (545 males, 174 females) healthy subjects were identified in this cross‐sectional study. The prevalence of MS in females (24.56%) was significantly higher than that in males (10.04%) in this population. Total PUFA (p<0.001), n‐3 PUFA (p<0.001), and n‐3:n‐6 (p<0.001) were significantly lower in MS subjects compared to healthy subjects. Plasma phospholipid (PL), n‐3 PUFA was significantly inversely associated with MS (p=0.013). In addition, subjects with high levels of PL total fatty acids (FA) had a more than threefold higher likelihood of MS (OR=3.44, 95% CI=1.60–7.39) than the subjects with low levels of PL total FA. Our results suggest that plasma PL n‐3 PUFA was significantly inversely associated with MS, while high total FA were positively associated with MS in Chinese.     

Comparison of proximate composition,amino acid and fatty acid profiles in wild,pond‐ and cage‐cultured longsnout catfish (Leiocassis longirostris)

The proximate composition, amino acid and fatty acid profiles in the fillets of wild, pond‐ and cage‐cultured longsnout catfish (Leiocassis longirostris) were determined to identify nutritional differences. Wild fish showed higher (P < 0.05) moisture and viscerosomatic index (VSI), but lower (P < 0.05) protein, ash and gross energy than cage‐cultured fish. Pond‐cultured fish contained lower (P < 0.05) protein and ash contents, but higher VSI compared to cage‐cultured fish. The amino acid of glycine content was higher (P < 0.05) in wild fish than in pond‐ and cage‐cultured fish. Most of the fatty acids had a significant difference among all fish groups. The percentages of total polyunsaturated fatty acids (∑ PUFAs) were higher (P < 0.05) in wild and pond‐cultured fish than in cage‐cultured fish. Pond‐cultured fish had higher (P < 0.05) ∑ n‐3 PUFAs, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahxaenoic acid (DHA) and ∑ n‐3/∑ n‐6 PUFAs ratio than wild and cage‐cultured fish. The differences among the wild, pond‐ and cage‐cultured fish may be attributed to dietary components and environmental conditions of the fish.     

Potential Production of Healthier Protein Isolate from Broiler Meat using Modified Acid-Aided pH Shift Process

Protein isolates from broiler meat were produced using acid-aided process (AP) with some modifications including prewashing prior to pH shift process (PW), homogenisation with 5 mM citric acid plus 8 mM CaCl₂ (CA) and homogenisation with 5 % ethanol (EA). Significant reduction of total cholesterol, nucleic acids and haemoproteins with improved protein yield and whiteness of the isolate was obtained from all modified process (p?<?0.05). CA was the most effective method in elimination of cholesterol (p?<?0.05). However, PW was the best way to remove nucleic acids and haem proteins (p?<?0.05). Among modified processes, CA gel tended to show the highest breaking force, deformation and whiteness but PW gel had the lowest expressible drip (p?<?0.05). EA possessed a negative effect on gel-forming ability. Therefore, CA or PW was a promising means to produce functional protein isolate with reduced nucleic acids, haem pigments and cholesterol.