Microstructural features of spray-formed AZ31 magnesium alloy

Abstract

Mg alloy AZ31 was spray-formed using an indigenously developed spray atomisation and deposition unit under protective atmosphere and various processing parameters were optimised. The microstructural features of the bell shaped AZ31 spray-formed deposit were characterised using optical microscope, scanning electron microscope/energy dispersive spectrometer, X-ray diffraction and high resolution transmission electron microscope. It was observed that the microstructural features are critically dependent on location in the spray-formed deposits. Under optimised processing conditions, the central region of the bell shaped deposit exhibited minimal porosity and a uniform fine grained equiaxed microstructure with fine Mg₁₇Al₁₂ intermetallics preferably located at the grain boundaries. However, the peripheral regions of the spray-formed deposit indicate higher porosity with distinct microstructural characteristics different from those in the central region. These microstructural features, observed at different locations in the spray-formed deposit, have been analysed and their evolution is discussed in the light of variations in thermal and solidification conditions of the droplets in flight, during impingement as well as those of the deposition surface.     

High speed steel produced by spray forming

In this paper, ASP2030 (A30) high speed steel (HSS) was produced by spray forming and the microstructure was studied by optical microscopy (OM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), electron probe microanalysis (EPMA) and X-ray diffraction (XRD). The spray formed A30 (SF A30) steel exhibited a very uniform and fine microstructure consisting of martensite, retained austenite and uniformly distributed network carbides. Microstructure refining can be explained in terms of the rapid solidification of spray forming. M₂C, MC and M₆C type carbides were found in the as-sprayed A30 HSS by XRD and TEM. A uniform distribution of carbides was obtained after forging and annealing. The microstructure properties of SF A30 steel indicate that spray forming can be considered as a cost-effective route for the production of A30 steels and other highly alloyed steels.     

Microstructural control by spray forming and wear characteristics of a Babbit alloy

The effect of process variables during spray forming of a commercial Babbit alloy containing Pb74–Sn12–Sb11.5–Cu1.25–NiO.75–Cd0.3–As0.2 on its microstructure and wear characteristics were investigated. Variation in atomization gas pressure from 0.6 to 1.2 MPa and nozzle to substrate distance from 0.2 to 0.4 m revealed considerable change in the nature of porosity and microstructural features of the spray deposits. The process variables during spray deposition were optimized to achieve microstructural homogeneity and refinement in second phase particles of this alloy. The wear study of both the spray formed and as-cast alloy under an applied load of 10 to 70 N and sliding velocity of 0.2 to 1.5 ms-1 indicated two distinct regimes of mild and severe wear. In both the regimes, the spray-formed alloy consistently indicated a low wear rate compared to that of the as-cast alloy. In addition, the mild wear regime of the spray-formed alloy was extended to higher load and sliding velocity. Wear characteristics of the spray formed alloy is discussed in light of its microstructural features induced during spray deposition processing.     

Modelling of billet shapes in spray forming using a scanning atomizer

A numerical method is presented to predict and analyze the shape of a growing billet produced from the ‘spray forming’ which is a fairly new near-net shape manufacturing process. It is important to understand the mechanism of billet growth because one can obtain a billet with the desired final shape without secondary operations by accurate control of the process, and it can also serve as a base for heat transfer and deformation analyses. The shape of a growing billet is determined by the flow rate of the alloy melt, the mode of nozzle scanning which is due to cam profile, the initial position of the spray nozzle, scanning angle, and the withdrawal speed of the substrate. In the present study, a theoretical model was first established to predict the shape of the billet and next the effects of the most dominant processing conditions, such as withdrawal speed of the substrate and the cam profile, on the shape of the growing billet were studied. Process conditions were obtained to produce a billet with uniform diameter and flat top surface, and an ASP30 high speed steel billet was manufactured using the same process conditions established from the simulation.     

Microstructural changes induced by ternary additions in a hypo-eutectic titanium-silicon alloy

Hypo-eutectic Ti-6.5 wt % Si alloy modified by separate additions of misch metal and low surface tension elements (Na, Sr, Se and Bi) has been examined by microscopic study and thermal analysis. Addition of third element led to modification of microstructure with apparently no significant enhancement of tensile ductility, with the exception of bismuth. Bismuth enhanced the ductility of the alloy by a factor of two and elastic-plastic fracture toughness to 9 MPa m^–1/2 from a value of almost zero. The improved ductility of bismuth modified alloy is attributed to the reduced interconnectivity of the eutectic suicide, absence of significant suicide precipitation in the eutectic region and increase in the volume fraction of uniformly distributed dendrites. These changes are accompanied by a decrease in the temperature of eutectic solidification.     

Design of wear resistant boron-modified supermartensitic stainless steel by spray forming process

In this paper the chemical composition of the supermartensitic stainless (SM) was modified with the addition of small boron contents (0.3, 0.5 and 0.7 wt.%) and processed by spray forming aiming the development of functionalized stainless steel with higher wear resistance. The addition of boron to the SM leads to the formation of continuous network of M₂B type borides uniformly distributed in the refined microstructure promoted by the spray forming process. The wear resistance was evaluated by two different methodologies: (1) the standardized dry sand/rubber wheel test (ASTM G65); and (2) a plate-on-cylinder (POC) wear test which was designed to simulate in laboratorial scale the tribosystems found in wear of risers and casings. It was shown that the wear mechanisms that take place in both tests are quite different, but in all cases increasing the boron content is always accompanied by an increase in the wear resistance. Electrochemical analyses were performed to evaluate the corrosion resistance of the designed alloys. It could be seen that corrosion properties similar to the commercial SM can be achieved in the SM modified with 0.7 wt.% of boron if an over content of chromium is added to the chemical composition.     

结构材料喷射成形技术与雾化沉积高温合金

喷射成形是利用快速凝固方法直接制备金属材料坯料或半成品的先进材料制造技术 ,喷射沉积高温结构材料的冶金性能好、生产效率高、成本低 ,因而在近几年得到了迅速发展 .本项研究的主要目的是要通过喷射成形工艺参数的调整、最大限度地直接减少喷射成形坯中的孔隙度 ,进而得到优质坯料 .利用优化的雾化喷射沉积技术制备了多种高温合金沉积坯 ,沉积坯整体致密、晶粒细小、组织均匀、无宏观偏析、含气量低、力学性能提高 .还简要地比较了喷射成形高温合金与用常规铸锭冶金工艺和粉末冶金工艺制备高温合金的异同 ;总结了航空材料研究院喷射成形高温材料近年来的研究状况 ,包括专用高温材料喷射成形装置和技术及其应用 .     

喷射成形CPM9V高速钢组织性能研究

为了提高CPM9V高速钢组织均匀性,采用喷射成形方法制备CPM9V高速钢,研究了喷射成形CPM9V高速钢热处理前后的微观组织.结果表明:喷射成形制备的CPM9V高速钢沉积坯晶粒细小,组织致密,无宏观偏析,沉积坯平均体密度为7.306 g/cm3,达到理论密度的98.1%;CPM9V高速钢沉积坯经热处理后组织为回火马氏体、铁素体和碳化物,二次回火硬度为52HRC,与粉末冶金CPM9V高速钢相当;组织中绝大部分为小于15μm的等轴晶,分布在晶界的碳化物主要为MC型碳化钒,分布在晶内的碳化物为VC和Mo的复合碳化物.     

Distribution of lead in lead-containing aluminium alloys obtained by liquid phase co-spray forming technique

Liquid phase co-spray forming (LPCSF) technique was employed to produce Al-Pb and Al-Si-Pb alloys to show that it is possible, using this technique, to distribute lead into very fine-sized particles in Al/Al alloy matrix at low melt temperatures. Microstructural studies were carried out to explore the mechanisms governing lead distribution in the matrix of the alloys during processing. Results showed that, regardless of the alloy compositions and experimental conditions, the microstructures of the preforms exhibited great similarity, i.e. less uniform distribution of Pb particles in the base region, and uniform distribution of fine Pb particles in the equiaxed region. During LPCSF process, the behaviour of Pb droplets was similar to that of ceramic particles, except that the shape and size of liquid Pb phase varied corresponding to local solidification condition.     

A hybrid arc spray forming technique for the manufacture of nickel superalloy IN617

Spray forming produces cast microstructures with comparatively low macro‐ and micro‐structural chemical segregation and is thus well‐suited for the manufacture of complex chemistry, multi‐component alloys that otherwise show strong elemental segregation. Although spray formed Ni superalloys have shown properties equivalent or superior to their conventionally cast/wrought counterparts, they have not been adopted commercially because of the difficulties in ensuring a high process yield and the complexity and associated cost of large‐scale Ni superalloy melting. In this paper, we describe a hybrid arc spray forming (HASF) process in which costly, large‐scale alloy melting as pre‐cursor to spray forming is avoided by the use of a consumable wire feedstock. To achieve thermal conditions of melt spray forming – essential to produce a refined, polygonal grain structure – a customised secondary atomisation system has been developed. Fe‐0.8 wt%C and Ni superalloy IN617 microstructures and preliminary mechanical properties suggested that hybrid arc spray forming may offer an attractive combination of convenience, low cost and mechanical performance.     

高铝青铜等离子喷焊层组织及其形成过程

为研究高铝青铜等离子喷焊层组织特征及其形成机理,采用等离子喷焊工艺在45钢基体上分别制备了厚度为2和5 mm的喷焊层,并对5 mm厚度喷焊层沿层深方向进行分层切割,利用光学显微镜、XRD、SEM、EDS分析了不同喷焊厚度的喷焊层组织形貌、相结构、相含量及界面处元素扩散.结果表明:不同厚度的高铝青铜喷焊层均形成了α,γ2及β’相包围k相生长的组织,喷焊过程中熔池不同位置的温度场参数和成分分布不同,形成的快速冷凝固组织特征不同.钢基体Fe元素向喷焊层纵深方向的扩散随喷焊层厚度增加,2 mm厚度的喷焊层中树枝状k相析出较少,偏析严重的位置出现粗大的球形组织,界面处的扩散冶金结合特征不明显;5 mm厚度的喷焊层中随分隔层厚度从2、3 mm增加到4 mm的过程中,Fe元素扩散作用减弱,在4 mm处Fe元素含量达到最低,富Fe的k相析出减少,均匀分布的树枝状组织逐渐增多.     

Microstructure of a recycled AA7050 alloy processed by spray forming followed by hot extrusion and rotary swaging

The aim of this study is to evaluate the microstructure of a recycled AA7050 alloy processed by spray forming followed by hot extrusion and swaging. Machining chips from an aircraft manufacturer were used as raw material. The microstructure was investigated by optical microscopy (MO) and scanning electronic microscopy (SEM). The spray formed deposit was homogenized at 743 K, 8 h, extruded at 693 K with a deformation rate of 0.1 s^–1 and an extrusion rate of 156:1, producing a bar with 8.0 mm in diameter. Due to a specific combination of high extrusion temperature and deformation rate, partial recrystallization occurred and different grain sizes were obtained through the extruded cross section. After extrusion, the 8.0 mm bar was processed by rotary swaging in several steps up to a 2.0 mm final diameter. The resulting microstructure revealed a cold worked structure, with no recrystallization. Tensile tests were performed in both cases and the slant type of fracture reveals that Portevin Le‐Chatelier effect took place in this alloy. Moreover, the efficacy of extrusion and rotary swaging parameters to reduce the porosity, intrinsic to the spray form process, was analyzed, as well the distribution of intermetallic particles.     

A2017半固态合金的半固态扩展成形

用单辊搅拌(SRS)实验机进行了A2017合金的半固态凝固实验,研究了A2017半固态合金组织的形成机理。在轧辊剪切力的作用下在轧辊粗糙表面生长初始枝晶,破碎后形成自由晶,自由晶自由运动和生长形成细小均匀的A2107合金球形组织。在710～750℃内浇注,可制备出具有细小、均匀球形组织的A2017半固态合金。使用在辊-靴型腔出口处的扩展成形模可实现A2017合金半固态连续扩展成形,使半固态成形与扩展挤压相结合,通过控制浇注温度得到了表面状态良好的断面尺寸为14mm×25mm的A2017扁型材料。用半固态扩展挤压方法得到的材料断裂强度为280MPa(比国标值提高100MPa);延伸率为49％(比标准值提高29％)。     

Effect of processing on microstructure and wear characteristics of an Al-4·5Cu-10Pb alloy

An Al-4·5Cu-10Pb alloy was processed by spray forming as well as impeller mixing followed by chill casting methods. The microstructure, mechanical properties and dry sliding wear characteristics of the alloy were evaluated. The spray formed alloy showed an equiaxed grain morphology with a uniform dispersion of lead particles in the matrix phase. In contrast a cellular-dendritic morphology of the primary phase was the characteristic feature of the alloy processed by impeller mixing and chill casting method. The spray formed alloy indicated its superior mechanical properties and low wear rate particularly at higher applied load and sliding velocity. The possible reason for this behaviour is discussed in the light of microstructure of the alloy and the nature of the worn out surfaces of the wear test specimens.     

SOFC阳极层的等离子喷涂混合炭粉成孔工艺

采用大气等离子喷涂技术,以活性炭粉作为成孔材料,获得了薄且多孔的中温固体氧化物燃料电池SOFC阳极层.实验研究分析了添加炭粉造孔剂和改进喷涂工艺参数对阳极层孔隙率的影响.结果表明:在合适的喷涂工艺条件下,添加质量比为15%的炭粉并进行后处理可得到孔隙率30.2%的阳极层,满足SOFC对阳极层孔隙率的要求.     

Microstructure and elevated temperature mechanical properties of Al–8Fe–4RE alloy fabricated by spray forming

Al–8Fe–4Ce alloy is currently manufactured by consolidating the atomized powders. With the aim to reduce the cost, spray forming process was applied in manufacturing with misch metal as raw materials. Spray forming (SF) as well as casting were employed to prepare Al–8Fe–4RE alloy, followed by hot‐press to compact the samples. The mechanical properties of SFed and cast Al–8Fe–4RE alloys are characterized at a temperature of 350 °C. The results show that the Al₃Fe phases contained in SF alloy is comparatively refined, forming needle‐shaped phases embedded in the Al matrix, and the SF alloy also showed lower degree of preferred orientation in (111) plane. Although both factors might explain the superior performance of the SF sample, the fracture appearance after tensile test at 350 °C shows that the contribution from crystallographic feature might be predominant. Spray forming is proved to be a very promising technique for manufacture of Al–Fe–Ce alloys of high strength at an elevated temperature.     

Ti对Zr-Al-Ni非晶合金玻璃形成能力和热稳定性的影响

四元非晶形成体系中，具有相对较大玻璃形成能力和热稳定性的合金成分点位于该四元成分图的等电子浓度面和等原子尺寸面的交线上。本文以Zr60Al20Ni20非晶合金的电子浓度和原子尺寸为基础，根据等电子浓度和等原子尺寸判据，添加Ti元素，设计了一系列Zr-Ti-Al-Ni四元合金，分析了Ti元素对Zr-Al-Ni非晶合金玻璃形成能力和热稳定性的影响。研究发现，在较低的Ti含量情况下，样品主要由非晶相组成，Ti的加入降低了合金的热稳定性和玻璃形成能力。     

用喷射铸造法制备CuCr25电触头合金

用喷射铸造法制备了CuCr25触头合金,研究了工艺参数(雾化压力和沉积距离)对合金组织形态和性能的影响.结果表明:采用优化的工艺参数和锻造过程制备出的CuCr25合金致密、组织良好,合金中Cr粒子平均直径为5～10μm,且均匀、弥散地分布于铜基体中.细小的Cr粒子提高了合金作为电触头材料的性能.经800℃锻压后,材料的密度＞8.4 g/cm3,电导率为28.5×106Q-1·m-1,硬度为108 HB.     

喷射成形管坯形状演变过程模拟

为了实现喷射成形管件的精确控制和深入理解喷射成形过程,建立了描述喷射成形管坯形状演化过程的数学物理模型,并对沉积坯上一点的生长速度进行了修正,使模型更符合实际情况.模拟结果表明:在喷射成形过程中,接收管水平移动速度、接收管外径和起始沉积距离等是喷射成形管坯形状和尺寸的重要参数,它们对管坯的形状演变将产生重要影响.稳定生长的管坯大致可分为3个区域,后部过渡区、直径均匀的中间区和前部过渡区.模拟结果与实验结果吻合得较好.     

Analysis of spray formed tool steels

The technique of atomising liquid metal and compacting the micro‐droplets to a billet on a rotating support combines advantages from cast, wrought and powder metallurgical materials. A production rate of several tons per hour requires precisely controlled processing routines. Important process parameters based on processing, manufacturing and application of spray formed material are now developed by fundamental investigations established in projects focused in a special co‐operative research program (SFB 372) at the University of Bremen which is funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). By this method advanced alloys of high hardness can be formed without inhomogeneities like segregations and pores in the center of the ingot. By example of tool steels the influence of spray forming on microstructure and homogeneity of the elemental distribution is shown.