Determination of the fatigue life of a helicopter tail rotor transmission subjected to ballistic damage

The aim of this work is to develop a methodology for the evaluation of the ballistic requirements of a helicopter component. The situation studied in the work refers to the possibility of a damaged helicopter performing an emergency manoeuvre and a 30-min return flight after the impact of a 7.62 NATO projectile on a shaft of the tail rotor transmission. The paper describes the finite element methodology adopted to simulate the impact of the projectile on the shaft, and outlines the hypotheses on which this methodology is based. The numerical simulation of the propagation of the crack originating from the damage caused by the impact is also described. It is thus possible to determine the time required to reach failure of the shaft. The effect of the residual stresses on the residual life of the shaft is studied in detail.     

直升机旋翼轴载荷测量试飞研究

为实测及研究飞行状态下的直升机旋翼轴弯矩、扭矩及拉力,提出一种旋翼轴飞行载荷测量方法.首先对旋翼轴应变电桥的布局进行分析,解决弯矩、扭矩及拉力应变电桥耦合的问题;然后通过载荷地面标定试验及飞行试验,动态同步实测不同飞行状态下的旋翼轴载荷,并对飞行数据的有效性进行验证;最后根据实测的试飞数据,对旋翼轴受载严重的试飞科目平...     

Material-based failure analysis of a helicopter rotor hub

A Lynx helicopter from the Royal Netherlands Navy lost a rotor blade during preparation for take-off. The blade loss was due to failure of a rotor hub arm by fatigue. The arm was integral to the titanium alloy rotor hub. An extensive material-based failure analysis covered the hub manufacture, service damage, and estimates of service stresses. There was no evidence for failure due to poor material properties. However, fractographic and fracture mechanics analyses of the service failure, a full-scale test failure, and specimen test failures indicated that the service fatigue stress history could have been more severe than anticipated. This possibility was subsequently supported by a separate investigation of the assumed and actual fatigue loads and stresses.     

Effect of heat treatment on mechanical and ballistic properties of a high strength armour steel

In the present study an ultra high strength armour steel was austenatised at 910°C followed by tempering at 200, 300, 400, 500 and 600°C. After heat treatment the properties of tensile strength, ductility, charpy impact strength, hardness and microstructure were evaluated from the mechanical tests and metallographic analysis respectively. The ballistic behavior of the heat-treated plates was evaluated impacting against non-deformable hard steel core projectiles at 840 ± 15 m/s at normal angle of attack. The changes in the microstructure and mechanical properties with heat treatment have been correlated with ballistic performance of the steel. Experimental results showed that 200°C tempering gives the best ballistic performance.     

Numerical simulation of normal and oblique ballistic impact on ceramic composite armours

This paper presents three-dimensional finite element models that investigate the performance of ceramic–composite armours when subjected to normal and oblique impacts by 7.62 AP rounds. The finite element results are compared with experimental data from different sources both for normal and oblique impact, respectively. Simulation of the penetration processes as well as the evaluation of energy and stresses distributions within the impact zones highlight the difference between normal and oblique ballistic impact phenomena. The findings show that the distributions of global kinetic, internal and total energy versus time are similar for normal and oblique impact. However, the interlaminar stresses at the ceramic–composite interface and the forces at the projectile–ceramic interface for oblique impact are found to be smaller than those for normal impact. Finally, it is observed that the projectile erosion in oblique impact is slightly greater than that in normal impact.     

Modeling the effects of yarn material properties and friction on the ballistic impact of a plain-weave fabric

Impact of a rigid sphere onto a high-strength plain-weave Kevlar KM2^® fabric was modeled using LS–DYNA^® focusing on the influence of friction and material properties on ballistic performance. Quasi-static friction was experimentally determined and incorporated into the model. Two clamped edges and two free edges were used as boundary conditions to correlate the model to an experimental test providing yarn–yarn movement. Yarns were modeled as continua with modulus and strength dominating along the length. Parametric studies incorporating different yarn material properties and initial projectile velocities were then performed with the above set of boundary conditions. Results indicate that ballistic performance depends upon friction, elastic modulus and strength of the yarns. While friction improves ballistic performance by maintaining the integrity of the weave pattern, material properties of the yarns have a significant influence on the effect of friction. It is shown that fabrics comprised of yarns characterized by higher stiffness and strength relative to the baseline Kevlar KM2^®, exhibited a stronger influence on ballistic performance. Therefore all three parameters viz., friction, elastic modulus and strength along with other variables (fabric architecture, boundary conditions, and projectile parameters) are needed to examine ballistic performance of high-strength fabric structures.     

转子系统油膜失稳故障的时频特征分析

采用转子试验台对油膜失稳故障进行模拟,通过调整转盘厚度和转轴长度来改变试验参数,最后采集两组不同参数下的发生油膜失稳的振动信号,通过三维谱图、重排小波尺度图和轴心轨迹对其故障特征进行提取,得到发生油膜失稳故障的一些新的时频特征,并对其产生机理进行了分析,得出的结论可为油膜失稳故障诊断提供理论参考。     

Optical techniques for the investigation of the ballistic impact of thin plates

The normal impact of chrome steel spheres upon mild steel and copper plates of various thicknesses was investigated. The bulging of their rear surfaces was monitored during the first 30 μs after impact using stereo digital speckle photography. The experimental data for copper was compared with two path-dependent models, one optimised for annealed and the other for pre-stressed (work-hardened) copper. It was not possible to differentiate between the two copper models using single-point displacement data. However, full-field data revealed clear differences in the shapes of the bulges, with greater global deformation and closer agreement with experiment for the model that included pre-stress. For both mild steel and copper, thin plates resulted in localised bulging whilst thicker plates produced global dishing. The bulge peak also grew earlier and more quickly in thinner specimens. The greater ductility of copper resulted in narrower, faster-growing bulges compared with mild steel of comparable thickness.     

Residual strength prediction of a complex structure using crack extension analyses

The residual strength of a flat panel (thickness 7.6 mm) with five stringers, machined from a monolithic block of Al2024-T351 material, which contained a crack that divided the central stringer, was to be predicted during a Round Robin organised by ASTM. The initial crack tips were right ahead of the stringers #2 and #4, respectively, so that crack branching along the skin and into the stringers occurred after initiation. The prediction has been achieved using finite element simulations including crack extension, for which a cohesive model was utilised. Conventional material properties, yield and ultimate strength as well as experimental results from M(T) specimens in terms of force, COD and Δa, were given. The residual strength prediction was performed in two-steps: First the crack extension parameters for the cohesive model, the cohesive strength, T₀, and the cohesive energy, Γ₀, were determined by numerical reproduction of the results of the M(T) specimen. With the optimised parameters, the five-stringer panel was modelled. These steps were conducted by two different finite element models: by a shell and a 3D finite element mesh. It turned out that it is possible to analyse the structure with both models. In the 3D case, the residual strength prediction was conservative and the deviation of the predicted from the experimental value was below 9%. The results of the shell simulation were even closer to the experiment (deviation approximately 3%), but the simulation was non-conservative.     

Effect of cold rolling on mechanical properties and ballistic performance of nitrogen-alloyed austenitic steels

In this paper, the effects of different amount of cold rolling on mechanical properties, microstructure and ballistic resistance of nitrogen containing austenitic stainless steel in two different conditions have been presented. The ballistic performance was measured in terms of energy absorption against deformable projectiles. It is found that increased percentage of cold reduction increases the strength and hardness with loss of ductility and decreases the energy absorption of material. The nature of failures and damages of the targets has been studied and also the microstructural characterization has been carried out.     

前飞状态下直升机旋翼旋转噪声预测

基于Farassat声学时域公式1A,建立了一个亚音速前飞状态下直升机旋翼旋转噪声的预测方法。该方法将厚度噪声与载荷噪声之和作为总噪声,将桨叶表面沿展向和弦向进行数值离散,延迟时间采用牛顿法求解,通过坐标转换,可针对不同位置观察点计算出声压的时间历程。并进一步利用傅立叶分解,进行噪声的频谱分析。应用该方法,分别进行声压与频谱的算例计算,并与可得到的试验数据进行了对比,验证了方法的有效性。在此基础上,着重分析了桨叶片数、旋翼转速、前飞速度等参数对旋翼气动噪声的影响,得出了一些有意义的结论。     

Computational assessment of ballistic impact on a high strength structural steel/polyurea composite plate

Ballistic impact on a polyurea retrofitted high strength structural steel plate is simulated and validated. A soft material model for polyurea, which is capable of capturing complex mechanical behavior characterized by large strains, hysteresis, rate sensitivity, stress softening (Mullins effect), and deviatoric and volumetric plasticity, is calibrated against several uniaxial tension experiments and a three-dimensional release wave experiment to capture both the material point and bulk behaviors. A porous plasticity model is employed to model the high strength structural steel and localization elements are included to capture adiabatic shear bands and strain localization. The computational capabilities of these models are demonstrated by the prediction of the target plate displacement, which shows excellent agreement with experiments.     

Residual strength prediction of a complex structure using crack extension analyses

The residual strength of a flat panel (thickness 7.6 mm) with five stringers, machined from a monolithic block of Al2024-T351 material, which contained a crack that divided the central stringer, was to be predicted during a Round Robin organised by ASTM. The initial crack tips were right ahead of the stringers #2 and #4, respectively, so that crack branching along the skin and into the stringers occurred after initiation. The prediction has been achieved using finite element simulations including crack extension, for which a cohesive model was utilised. Conventional material properties, yield and ultimate strength as well as experimental results from M(T) specimens in terms of force, COD and Δa, were given. The residual strength prediction was performed in two-steps: First the crack extension parameters for the cohesive model, the cohesive strength, T₀, and the cohesive energy, Γ₀, were determined by numerical reproduction of the results of the M(T) specimen. With the optimised parameters, the five-stringer panel was modelled. These steps were conducted by two different finite element models: by a shell and a 3D finite element mesh. It turned out that it is possible to analyse the structure with both models. In the 3D case, the residual strength prediction was conservative and the deviation of the predicted from the experimental value was below 9%. The results of the shell simulation were even closer to the experiment (deviation approximately 3%), but the simulation was non-conservative.     

Ballistic resistance of spaced multi-layer plate structures: Experiments on Fibre Reinforced Plastic targets and an analytical framework for calculating the ballistic limit

As the use of complex multi-layer structures in defense, marine, aerospace and automotive applications becomes increasingly common, it is vital that the response of such structures to impact loading is better understood and that engineers have adequate analysis tools to design structures optimised for resistance to ballistic penetration. This paper presents the results of a series of ballistic impact experiments carried out on a range of spaced multi-layer fibre reinforced-plastic (FRP) composite targets, with a constant total number of plies per target, but varying numbers of plies per layer and varying layer arrangements. It is shown that varying the ratio of plies between layers can have a significant effect on resistance to ballistic penetration. In light of these experimental results, the validity of applying the Lambert–Jonas equation to spaced multi-layer structures is discussed and an extended framework developed to determine the ballistic limit of a projectile impacting such a structure. The extended Lambert–Jonas framework is then validated with data from the literature. It is hoped that this framework will allow engineers to quickly determine the optimum layer arrangement to maximise the ballistic resistance of complex spaced multi-layer structures.     

Analysis on failure mechanisms of an interlock woven fabric under ballistic impact

In this paper, damage mechanisms of a 3D interlock woven fabric subjected to ballistic impact were analyzed using a numerical model. Two impact configurations were carried out in order to validate the numerical model with experimental observations: perforation (900 m/s) and no-perforation (90 m/s). Global deformation of the fabric during impact is determined continuously to detail fabric impact behavior. Also, in this study, the effects of boundary conditions on failure mechanisms have been investigated. Boundary conditions are divided into two cases: (1) only warp yarns fixed and (2) only weft yarns fixed. Basing on continuous evolutions of global deformation, projectile velocity, different energies and reaction force onto projectile, the influence of both these fixation conditions is investigated.     

裂纹非线性呼吸行为对转子临界转速的影响

为了研究复杂涡动引起的裂纹非线性呼吸行为对转子临界转速的影响,构建了带横向裂纹Jeffcott转子的通用运动方程,利用新建运动方程对临界转速附近裂纹转子的稳态响应进行了数值研究。发现裂纹的非线性呼吸行为对转子不但具有增强稳定性的作用(与开裂纹转子相比),而且在一定条件下具有降低振动响应的作用(与无裂纹转子相比)。与无裂纹转子相似,稳定的裂纹转子的临界转速等于响应振幅最大且重心转向约90°对应的转速。裂纹转子的临界转速值随不平衡量方位角在开裂纹和闭裂纹转子固有频率之间变化。在转子实验台上进行了裂纹转子通过临界转速的实验验证,观察数据支持理论研究结果。     

拉杆疲劳裂纹导致的组合转子性能退化研究

 组合转子作为燃气轮机等的核心部件,其性能退化机理并不明确,揭示其性能退化机理并有效地进行性能退化评估对燃气轮机等长期安全运行具有重要意义.为此,从结构损伤导致性能退化的角度出发,分析拉杆裂纹引起的组合转子性能退化特性.分别建立了组合转子有限元模型和弯曲、扭转刚度模型,利用有限元模型对拉杆上含初始裂纹的组合转子进行裂纹扩展分析,得到拉杆裂纹扩展速率;利用弯曲和扭转刚度模型分析了不同深度的裂纹对组合转子振动的影响,得到组合转子固有频率随裂纹尺寸的变化规律;并提出了衡量由微裂纹导致的组合转子性能退化的度量指标,实现了拉杆裂纹引起的组合转子性能退化的定量评估.研究表明：随着拉杆裂纹尺寸的增大,裂纹的扩展速率变快;拉杆裂纹的存在对组合转子的弯振影响较大,对扭振影响相对较小.     

The effect of crystallographic orientation on the natural vibration spectrum and fatigue limit of turbine rotor blades made of monocrystalline materials

Based on 3D models of rotor blades made of monocrystalline materils, the influence of crystallographic orientation of material axes on the formation of natural frequency spectrum and mode shapes of the blades has been clarified. A computational-experimental method is proposed for the evaluation of fatigue limit of monocrystalline blades, which significantly reduces the test scope while improving the reliability of test results. __________ Translated from Problemy Prochnosti, No. 5, pp. 15–27, September–October, 2008.     

The effect of residual stresses arising from laser shock peening on fatigue crack growth

Residual stresses have in the past been introduced to manipulate growth rates and shapes of cracks under cyclic loads. Previously, the effectiveness of shot peening in retarding the rate of fatigue crack growth was experimentally studied. It was shown that the compressive residual stresses arising from the shot peening process can affect the rate of crack growth. Laser shock peening can produce a deeper compressive stress field near the surface than shot peening. This advantage makes this technique desirable for the manipulation of crack growth rates. This paper describes an experimental program that was carried out to establish this effect in which steel specimens were partially laser peened and subsequently subjected to cyclic loading to grow fatigue cracks. The residual stress fields generated by the laser shock peening process were measured using the neutron diffraction technique. A state of compressive stress was found near the surface and tensile stresses were measured in the mid-thickness of the specimens. Growth rates of the cracks were observed to be more affected by the tensile core than by the compressive surface stresses.     

Thickness influence on ballistic impact behaviors of GLARE 5 fiber-metal laminated beams: Experimental and numerical studies

This paper presents experimental and numerical investigations on ballistic impact behaviors of GLARE 5 fiber-metal laminated (FML) beams of various thicknesses. A high-speed camera was used to measure impact and residual/rebound velocities and also to assess damage evolution in the FMLs. The incident projectile impact velocity versus the residual velocity (V_I–V_R) was plotted and numerically fitted according to the classical Lambert–Jonas equation for the determination of ballistic limit velocity, V₅₀. The results showed that the V₅₀ varied in a parabolic trend with respect to the metal volume fraction (MVF) and specimen thickness. The interfacial debonding as well as bending and stretching in aluminum layers played the significant roles in dissipating the impact energy in the GLARE 5 FML beams. The 3D finite element (FE) code, LS-DYNA, was used to model and validate the experimentally obtained results. Good agreement between experimental and numerical results was achieved. It was found that for a given specimen configuration, by increasing the projectile incident velocity up to its V₅₀, the maximum contact force increased. By further increasing the projectile velocity above its V₅₀, the maximum contact force was relatively invariant with respect to an increase in the projectile incident velocity.