Tethering the elephant: Capital cases, IQ, and the Flynn effect.

Capital offenders cannot be executed if they are mentally retarded. Therefore, the IQ scores of offenders are important, and the U.S. 4th Circuit Court of Appeals has held that the Flynn effect is relevant to interpreting their IQ scores. The Flynn effect (IQ gains over time) means that different IQ tests will give different scores purely as a result of when the tests were normed. Because execution must not be a random result of what test defendants take, a formula is provided to convert IQ scores to a common metric: the norms current at the time the test was taken. The formula also includes a correction based on evidence that the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition inflates IQs because of sampling error. Given the inevitability that opposing experts will offer conflicting diagnoses, IQ scores merit special attention in capital cases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The Flynn Effect and U.S. Policies: The Impact of Rising IQ Scores on American Society Via Mental Retardation Diagnoses.

Over the last century, IQ scores have been steadily rising, a phenomenon dubbed the Flynn effect. Because of the Flynn effect, IQ tests are periodically renormed, making them harder. Given that eligibility for mental retardation (MR) services relies heavily on IQ scores, renormed tests could have a significant impact on MR placements. In longitudinal IQ records from 9 sites around the country, students in the borderline and mild MR range lost an average of 5.6 points when retested on a renormed test and were more likely to be classified MR compared with peers retested on the same test. The magnitude of the effect is large and affects national policies on education, social security, the death penalty, and the military. This paper reports the perceptions of professionals as they relate to IQ score fluctuations in normal, borderline, and/or MR populations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expanding variance and the case of historical changes in IQ means: A critique of Dickens and Flynn (2001).

The Flynn effect is the rise in mean IQ scores during the 20th century, amounting to about 0.33 IQ points per year. Many theoretical explanations have been proposed, though none are universally accepted. W. Dickens and J. R. Flynn's (2001) new approach explains the large IQ changes by means of recursive models of IQ growth. A salient feature of their models is that IQ phenotypes and their supportive environments are correlated; in addition, environmental effects can rebound on phenotypic IQ to increase or lower IQ. In this critique, the authors examine an empirical challenge to their models, which typically imply large changes in IQ variance. However, the historical rise in IQ mean level has not been accompanied by substantial variance changes, a finding inconsistent with the properties of the proposed model. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the clarification of concepts: A Reply to Gallistel (2007) and Lau (2007).

The authors argue that some of C. R. Gallistel's (see record 2007-14606-005) and H. C. Lau's (see record 2007-14606-006) solutions to the problems raised in the article by A. Machado and F. J. Silva (see record 2007-14606-004) are unlikely, logically inconsistent, or at odds with empirical evidence. In particular, Lau seems not to appreciate the necessity of clear and consistent psychological constructs before trying to map these constructs to brain structure and function. The authors conclude that conceptual analysis is a much needed component of the scientific method. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Save angels perhaps: A critical examination of unconscious thought theory and the deliberation-without-attention effect.

Based on Unconscious Thought Theory (UTT) and a series of experimental and correlational studies, Dijksterhuis and his colleagues conclude that when making complex choices/decisions, conscious thought--deliberation while attention is directed at the problem--leads to poorer choices/decisions than unconscious thought--deliberation in the absence of conscious attention directed at the problem. UTT comprises six principles said to apply to decision making, impression formation, attitude formation and change, problem solving, and creativity. Because the implications of UTT for psychological research and theory are considerable, the authors critically examined these six principles (and the studies used to support them) in light of the extant scholarship on unconscious processes, memory, attention, and social cognition. Our examination reveals that UTT is a theory of the unconscious that fails to take into account important work in cognitive psychology, particularly in the judgment and decision making area. Moreover, established literatures in social psychology that contradict fundamental tenets of UTT and its empirical basis are ignored. The authors conclude that theoretical and experimental deficiencies undermine the claims of the superiority of unconscious thinking as portrayed by UTT. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Assessing the validity of ape-human comparisons: A reply to Boesch (2007).

Boesch (2007) criticizes research comparing ape and human cognition on the basis of both internal and external validity. The authors show here that most of those criticisms are not valid because: (i) most threats to internal validity (e.g., conspecific experimenters for humans but not apes) are controlled for experimentally; (ii) externally, there is no empirical evidence that captive apes have fewer cognitive skills than wild apes and indeed some evidence (especially from human-raised apes) that they have more; and (iii) externally, there is no empirical evidence that Western middle-class children have different cognitive skills from other children at very early ages in basic cognitive domains. Although difficult, with appropriate methodological care, experimental cross-species comparisons may be validly made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A critical appraisal of intelligent testing with the WISC-III: Introduction to the series.

This special issue is intended to provide professionals and other members of the policy-shaping community with information from which judgments concerning the appropriate role of IQ testing in the delivery of school psychological services can be formed. In Kaufman's (1994) most recent rendition of his intelligent testing series, Intelligent testing with the WISC-III, he devotes a major section of the first chapter to his presumed defense of IQ testing against criticisms that have emerged within the school psychology literature. Are the inferences derived by Kaufman's methods of WISC-III test interpretation of sufficient quality to support their use in professional problem solving and decision making? Are they reliable? Are they accurate? Do they contribute to beneficial outcomes for children? These are guiding questions that represent underlying themes for this special issue. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reply to Fjell et al. (2010) and Raz and Lindenberger (2010): The prevalence of cortical gray matter atrophy may be overestimated in the healthy aging brain.

Burgmans et al. (2009) stated that the prevalence of cortical gray matter atrophy may be overestimated in the healthy aging brain, because the inclusion of participants with preclinical cognitive pathology might have been responsible for the age effects found in previous studies. Fjell et al. (2010) and Raz and Lindenberger (2010) verified this statement by reanalyzing previously published data. They both argue that it is unlikely that preclinical cognitive pathology explains cortical gray matter atrophy in healthy aging. Burgmans et al. (2010) respond to these commentaries. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Biased estimators, biased experts, and the ivory tower: A reply to Grove (2001).

This reply responds to W. M. Grove's (2001) critique of H. O. F. Veiel and R. F. Koopman's (2001) article on bias in widely used methods of estimating premorbid IQ. In this reply, the authors show that Grove is misrepresenting part of Veiel and Koopman's arguments, extending them to show that the proposed adjustment to regression estimates of IQ not only is unbiased but also is the maximum-likelihood estimate of the true IQ, and argue that Grove's notion of the acceptability of biased methods in judicial proceedings reflects a fundamental misapprehension of their nature and purpose. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two versions of the negative compatibility effect: Comment on Lleras and Enns (2004).

A. Lleras and J. T. Enns (see record 2004-21166-001) demonstrated a negative influence of a masked arrow that is attributable to the perceptual interaction between the arrow and the mask when these have properties in common (in this case diagonal lines). Although the present analysis is in agreement that this type of perceptual interaction can occur, it also demonstrates that this is not the only way a masked arrow can produce a negative influence. The most critical finding is that a negative influence occurred even when the arrow and mask did not share the common properties that would be needed for this type of perceptual interaction. This illustrates the version of the negative compatibility effect that was studied by S. T. Klapp and L. B. Hinkley (2002) and others. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stemming the TIDE: A correction of Fortner (1999) and a clarification of Larson and Hoyt (2007).

In this article, the author corrects an error in his 1999 dissertation (see record 2000-95004-391), which was summarized in detail shortly after its approval and was intensely examined more recently by D. G. Larson and W. T. Hoyt (see record #200711559-003). An error in the text of the dissertation transposed the variables of the denominator of the treatment-induced deterioration statistic (TIDE). The error was limited to the text of the document, and all calculations and results reported in the dissertation are correct. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A clash of bottom-up and top-down processes in visual search: The reversed letter effect revisited: Correction to Zhaoping and Frith (2011).

Reports an error in A clash of bottom-up and top-down processes in visual search: The reversed letter effect revisited by Li Zhaoping and Uta Frith (Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, np). The authors have requested a number of corrections. The corrections are given in the erratum. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2011-09719-001.) It is harder to find the letter “N” among its mirror reversals than vice versa, an inconvenient finding for bottom-up saliency accounts based on primary visual cortex (V1) mechanisms. However, in line with this account, we found that in dense search arrays, gaze first landed on either target equally fast. Remarkably, after first landing, gaze often strayed away again and target report was delayed. This delay was longer for target “N” We suggest that the delay arose because bottom-up saliency clashed with top-down shape recognition. Thus, although gaze landed accurately and quickly to the distinctive feature in the target shape (the orientation of the diagonal bar in “N” or “И”), the identical zigzag shape of target and distractors was registered, leading to temporary confusion. In sparser search arrays with smaller set sizes, top-down target shape recognition occurs earlier and bottom-up saliency is weaker. The clash in this case causes search asymmetry even before target location at first gaze landing. Our findings rule out previous suggestions that search asymmetry stems from stronger preattentive salience for the reversed target and/or faster rejection of familiar distractors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Retest consistency and the writing of life history items: A first step.

Retest consistency was employed as a criterion for the evaluation of life history items, and rules for item writing or selection such that this criterion may be better satisfied were suggested. The method employed required: an inspection of consistent and inconsistent items with a view to deriving rules, and the "blind" sorting of these items in accordance with a given rule by 5 independent judges to determine the coincidence of rule conformity with retest consistency. 4 rules satisfied a statistical criterion of significant association. These deal with brevity, with the definition of options, with the undesirability of "forcing," and with the pleasant or unpleasant implications of a response for the respondent. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Physiological effects of "hypnotic suggestions': A critical review of recent research (1960-64).

Recent studies are reviewed which were concerned with the effectiveness of suggestions given under "hypnosis" and "waking" experimental treatments in alleviating allergies, ichthyosis, myopia, and other conditions and in eliciting deafness, blindness, hallucinations, analgesia, cardiac acceleration and deceleration, emotional responses, urine secretion to sham water ingestion, narcotic-like drug effects, and other phenomena. The review indicates that a wide variety of physiological functions can be influenced by suggestions administered under either hypnosis or waking experimental treatments, and direct and indirect suggestions to show the particular physiological manifestations are crucial variables in producing the effects. (3 p. ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Searching for the second generation of American women psychologists": Correction to Johnston and Johnson (2008).

Reports an error in "Searching for the second generation of American women psychologists" by Elizabeth Johnston and Ann Johnson (History of Psychology, 2008[Feb], Vol 11[1], 40-72). The authors would like to indicate that Inez Beverly Prosser's academic degree was incorrectly listed as EdD in the Appendix. Prosser's correct degree is PhD. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2008-04777-003.) As a consequence of the groundbreaking work of E. Scarborough and L. Furumoto (1987), the contributions of the pioneering first generation of American women psychologists are now well recognized within the history of psychology; however, the generation that followed the pioneers is less well known. The lack of recognition that most women psychologists of the interwar era experienced during the majority of their working lives resulted from sexism institutionalized through practices such as anti-nepotism rules that effectively excluded many married women from the academy, informal hiring practices operating in "old-boy network" fashion, and exclusion from certain key graduate training centers. Yet, many women were productive psychologists during this era and contributed to the growth and expansion of the discipline. Examination of published literature generated biographical information for 107 eminent women; C. A. Murchison's (1932b) Psychological Register provided a less detailed but more inclusive inventory to yield data on a total of 320 women. This article recounts our systematic search for this "lost generation" and emphasizes the extent and diversity of their contributions to psychology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A taxonomy of measurement invariance effect size indices: Correction to Meade (2010).

Reports an error in A taxonomy of effect size measures for the differential functioning of items and scales by Adam W. Meade (Journal of Applied Psychology, 2010[Jul], Vol 95[4], 728-743). There was an error in Formula 6 on page 731 for the pooled standard deviation of the ESSD index. The correct formula is given in the erratum. Related to this, in Table 8 on page 739, the ETSSD statistic should have been .094 for the cross cultural comparison and .001 for the Administration Format example. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2010-13313-009.) Much progress has been made in the past 2 decades with respect to methods of identifying measurement invariance or a lack thereof. Until now, the focus of these efforts has been to establish criteria for statistical significance in items and scales that function differently across samples. The power associated with tests of differential functioning, as with all significance tests, is affected by sample size and other considerations. Additionally, statistical significance need not imply practical importance. There is a strong need as such for meaningful effect size indicators to describe the extent to which items and scales function differently. Recently developed effect size measures show promise for providing a metric to describe the amount of differential functioning present between groups. Expanding upon recent developments, this article presents a taxonomy of potential differential functioning effect sizes; several new indices of item and scale differential functioning effect size are proposed and illustrated with 2 data samples. Software created for computing these indices and graphing item- and scale-level differential functioning is described. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stepping up to the challenge: A critical examination of face-to-face and computer-mediated team decision making.

The stepladder technique was designed to improve team decision making by staggering members' entry into a discussion (S. G. Rogelberg, J. L. Bames-Farrell, & C. A. Lowe, 1992). After examining the real and perceived influence exerted by members joining the discussion at different stepladder stages, the authors compared the technique's effects on face-to-face versus computer-mediated teamwork. They also tested the impact of electronic communication on members' perceptions of their collaborative processes. Results did not support the hypothesis that stepladder members joining the discussion early in the procedure enjoy disproportionate amounts of perceived influence, yet a prediction concerning the stepladder technique's incongruent effects across different communication media was partially upheld. As expected, face-to-face participants felt more influential and satisfied than their computer-mediated counterparts, regardless of decision technique. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Understanding the developmental origins of primate face recognition: Theoretical commentary on Martin-Malivel and Okada (2007).

J. Martin-Malivel and K. Okada (2007, this issue; see record 2007-18058-001) reported that chimpanzees raised with extensive social contact with humans show face discrimination abilities for human faces that exceed those for conspecific faces. Martin-Malivel and Okada have placed this finding in the theoretical context of the relative role of experience and innate face representations. The present article discusses the logic of the various styles of studies relevant to this question-considering primates without prior visual experience, sensitive periods, perceptual narrowing, childhood development, other-species effects, other-race effects, social quality of experience with nonconspecifics, and perceived social group membership-and also reviews the key current data. A case is made that there is still a long way to go in understanding whether there is an innate representation of conspecific faces, how tightly tuned any such representation is to conspecific morphology, and how experience obtained during different age brackets (e.g., infancy versus adulthood) affects discrimination and interacts with any innate representation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Analogical reasoning and the differential outcome effect: Transitory bridging of the conceptual gap for rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta).

Monkeys, unlike chimpanzees and humans, have a marked difficulty acquiring relational matching-to-sample (RMTS) tasks that likely reflect the cognitive foundation upon which analogical reasoning rests. In the present study, rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) completed a categorical (identity and nonidentity) RMTS task with differential reward (pellet ratio) and/or punishment (timeout ratio) outcomes for correct and incorrect choices. Monkeys in either differential reward-only or punishment-only conditions performed at chance levels. However, the RMTS performance of monkeys experiencing both differential reward and punishment conditions was significantly better than chance. Subsequently when all animals experienced nondifferential outcomes tests, their RMTS performance levels were at chance. These results indicate that combining differential reward and punishment contingencies provide an effective, albeit transitory, scaffolding for monkeys to judge analogical relations-between-relations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)