Motivational factors in decision theories: The role of self-protection.

Reviews the standard economic and cognitive models of decision making under risk and describes the psychological assumptions that underlie these models. Important motivational factors that are typically underemphasized by the standard theories are then reviewed, including the motivation to protect one's self-image from failure and regret. An integrated view of decision making is offered on the basis of a more comprehensive set of psychological assumptions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinical psychophysics: Applications of ratio scaling and signal detection methods to research on pain, fear, drugs, and medical decision making.

Recent developments in psychophysics termed statistical decision theory (or signal detection theory; SDT) and magnitude estimation (ME) are being applied to an increasing variety of previously recalcitrant problems in clinical psychology and medical decision making. The SDT method separates human decision making into a discrimination accuracy measure and a criterion or bias measure. This characteristic is helpful in analyzing confusing situations such as pain assessment, where any number of procedures or manipulations can affect the S's willingness to report pain, but leave unaffected the detectability of pain-producing stimuli. ME methods applied to personality research do not limit an individual's assessment of his or her personal reactions (e.g., degree of anxiety or intoxication) to a range of categories devised by the experimenter but allow each person to construct as sensitive and unique a scale as is required. These methods also show superior agreement with psychophysiological measures of such factors. It is suggested that ME and SDT represent a significant advance over current practices in terms of their greater objectivity and precision, parsimonious use of a single language for the laboratory and the clinic, and potential for the quantification of subtle covert psychological behaviors. Applications of SDT and ME to the assessment and understanding of pain, anxiety, psychoactive drugs, and medical decision making are described. (97 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A dual-process account of auditory change detection.

Listeners can be “deaf” to a substantial change in a scene comprising multiple auditory objects unless their attention has been directed to the changed object. It is unclear whether auditory change detection relies on identification of the objects in pre- and post-change scenes. We compared the rates at which listeners correctly identify changed objects with those predicted by change-detection models based on signal detection theory (SDT) and high-threshold theory (HTT). Detected changes were not identified as accurately as predicted by models based on either theory, suggesting that some changes are detected by a process that does not support change identification. Undetected changes were identified as accurately as predicted by the HTT model but much less accurately than predicted by the SDT models. The process underlying change detection was investigated further by determining receiver-operating characteristics (ROCs). ROCs did not conform to those predicted by either a SDT or a HTT model but were well modeled by a dual-process that incorporated HTT and SDT components. The dual-process model also accurately predicted the rates at which detected and undetected changes were correctly identified. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Hillel J. Einhorn (1941–1987).

Presents an obituary for Hillel Einhorn, who died of Hodgkin's disease at the age of 45. Between two battles with cancer, Einhorn contributed greatly to the development of the field of behavioral decision theory. Apart from visiting appointments at Carnegie-Mellon University and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Einhorn spent his entire professional career at the University of Chicago. Three themes could be said to underlie his work. First, he sought to integrate psychological principles into models of decision making and to bring decision research into the mainstream of psychology. Second, guided by a strong aesthetic sense, he had a deep appreciation for the latent simplicity, beauty, and efficacy of many natural processes even when observable behaviors seem complex or chaotic. Third, although he greatly admired rigorous experimental work, he was acutely aware that there can be critical differences between decision making under laboratory conditions and decision making in the real world. Einhorn died in 1987. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Models of jury decision making: A critical review.

Reviews several models of jury decision making. In each instance the model is described and compared with related models, its assumptions are scrutinized, its fit to normative data is evaluated, and possible revisions and extensions of the model are discussed. Models reviewed include (a) multinomial decision schemes designed to adduce implicit decision rules used in jury decision making; (b) binomial models of jury voting that use simplifying assumptions about jury decision making to assess the impact of explicit decision rules and jury size on verdict distributions; (c) Bayesian models that use normative data to estimate prior probabilities of defendants' "convictability" and juror accuracy; (d) models that assess the relationships among jury size, decision rule, and jury accuracy; (e) models that examine the relationship between juror and jury errors; and (f) a computer simulation that uses simple assumptions about group persuasion and individual differences in jurors' resistance to persuasion to model results from empirical studies of jury decision making. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Comments on Batchelder and Riefer's multinomial model for source monitoring

Kinchla criticizes Batchelder and Riefer's multinomial model for source monitoring, primarily its high-threshold assumptions, and he advocates an approach based on statistical decision theory (SDT). In this reply, the authors lay out some of the considerations that led to their model and then raise some specific concerns with Kinchla's critique. The authors point out that most of his criticisms are drawn from contrasting the high threshold and the Gaussian, equal-variance SDT models on receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curves for yes-no recognition memory. They indicate how source monitoring is more complicated than yes-no recognition and question the validity of standard ROC analyses in source monitoring. The authors argue that their model is a good approximation for measuring differences between sources on old-new detection and that it has the ability to measure source discrimination as well as detection. The authors also explore a low-threshold multinomial model and discuss the application of SDT models to source monitoring.     

Measuring memory factors in source monitoring: Reply to Kinchla.

D. A. Kinchla (see record 1994-16291-001) criticizes W. H. Batchelder and D. M. Reifer's multinomial model for source monitoring, primarily its high-threshold assumptions, and advocates an approach based on statistical decision theory (SDT). The authors lay out some of the considerations that led to their model and then raise some specific concerns with Kinchla's critique. The authors point out that most of his criticisms are drawn from contrasting the high threshold and the Gaussian, equal-variance SDT models on receiver operating characteristics (ROC) curves for yes-no recognition memory. The authors indicate how source monitioring is more complicated than yes-no recognition and question the validity of standard ROC analyses in source monitoring. The authors argue that their model is a good approximation for measuring differences between sources on old-new detection and that it has the ability to measure source discrimination as well as detection. The authors also explore a low-threshold multinomial model and discuss the application of SDT models to source monitoring. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A psychological analysis of Adolf Hitler's decision making as commander in chief: Summa confidentia et nimius metus.

This study is an attempt to analyze Hitler's decision making during World War II. Based on detailed historical sources, we specifically analyzed Hitler's decision-making failures and investigated the possible causes for these failures following theories on cognition, motivation, and action regulation. Failures such as underestimation of an opponent and overestimation of one's own capabilities, the displacement of responsibility for failures on scapegoats, the substitution of easily solvable problems for difficult ones, methodism in decision making, and lack of self-reflection are discussed and detailed examples are provided. These failures ultimately functioned to maintain Hitler's self-confidence. We integrate the failures into a model that explains the origins of Hitler's decision making. Although Hitler's behavior could certainly be judged as “evil,” the analysis goes further and thus can help leaders learn from these failures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Wanting, having, and needing: Integrating motive disposition theory and self-determination theory.

Four studies explored the motivational and experiential dynamics of psychological needs, applying both self-determination theory and motive disposition theory. In all 4 studies, motive dispositions toward achievement and affiliation (“wanting” particular experiences) predicted corresponding feelings of competence and relatedness (“having” those experiences). Competence and relatedness in turn predicted well-being, again indicating that these 2 experiences may really be “needed.” Illuminating how wanting gets to having, in Studies 2 and 3, participants reported greater self-concordance for motive-congruent goals, which, in longitudinal Study 3, predicted greater attainment of those goals and thus enhanced well-being. Study 4 replicated selected earlier results using an implicit as well as an explicit motive disposition measure. Supporting the presumed universality of competence and relatedness needs, in no studies did motive dispositions moderate the effects of corresponding need-satisfaction on well-being. Discussion focuses on a “sequential process” model of psychological needs that views needs as both motives that instigate and outcomes that reward behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Correction to Deci and Ryan.

Reports an error in "Facilitating optimal motivation and psychological well-being across life's domains" by Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan (Canadian Psychology/Psychologie Canadienne, 2008[Feb], Vol 49[1], 14-23). Figure 1 on page 17 was incorrect. The correct figure is printed in the text. (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 2008-03783-002.) Self-determination theory (SDT) differentiates motivation, with autonomous and controlled motivations constituting the key, broad distinction. Research has shown that autonomous motivation predicts persistence and adherence and is advantageous for effective performance, especially on complex or heuristic tasks that involve deep information processing or creativity. Autonomous motivation is also reliably related to psychological health. Considerable research has found interpersonal contexts that facilitate satisfaction of the basic psychological needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness to enhance autonomous motivation, which comprises intrinsic motivation and well-internalized extrinsic motivation. SDT has been applied in varied cultures and in many life domains, and research is reviewed that has related autonomous and controlled motivation to education, parenting, work, health care, sport, and close relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Exploring Factors for Ethical Decision Making: Views from Construction Professionals

The construction industry has experienced malpractice, which is a significant cause for concern. Does the nature of the industry provide some hint for tracing the underlying reasons of the relatively severe ethical problems in construction? Can one of the most influential stakeholders in the industry, the professionals, improve the situation? This study was conducted in Hong Kong to investigate what kinds of ethical problems are faced by construction professionals, and to explore the factors influencing their ethical decision making. Statistical factor analyses identified six intuitive underlying factors that affect ethical decision making when construction professionals are facing ethical dilemmas in the industry. Four of them influencing decision making are “deontological factor,” “consequential factor—egoism,” “consequential factor—utilitarianism,” and “legal requirement.” Two other factors are “oneself/family” and “stakeholders.” Results show that construction professionals’ ethical behavior is guided by legal requirements. When making ethical decisions, they adopt an egoism approach that prioritizes their self-interest and their families’ interests higher than the public’s interest; they would consciously evaluate the consequences of any unethical behavior.     

Threat and selective exposure: The moderating role of threat and decision context on confirmatory information search after decisions.

Previous studies on the impact of perceived threat on confirmatory information search (selective exposure) in the context of decision making have yielded mixed results. Some studies have suggested that confirmatory information search is reduced, yet others have found contradictory effects. The present series of 5 studies consistently found that the crucial moderator for these inconsistent findings was whether the induced threat was contextually related to the subsequent decision and information search tasks. Contextual incongruence (e.g., an induction of terrorist threat followed by an economic decision case) results in reduced levels of confirmatory information search, whereas a congruent threat (e.g., an induction of terrorist threat followed by a decision case on terrorism) results in increased levels of confirmatory information search. Analyses of the underlying psychological processes revealed that decision-unrelated threat inductions increase decision makers' experienced decision uncertainty, thus reducing confirmatory information search. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Signal Detection Theory Analyses of Semantic Priming in Word Recognition.

Word recognition, semantic priming, and cognitive impenetrability research have used signal detection theory (SDT) measures to separate perceptual and postperceptual processes. In the D. Norris (1986) checking model and model simulation (D. Norris, 1995), priming alters only postperceptual word decision criteria: Stimulus-related priming reduces uncertainty, increasing sensitivity; stimulus-unrelated priming increases false alarms more than hits, reducing sensitivity. This work is cited as strong evidence that criterion changes can alter perceptual sensitivity and that SDT is inappropriate for investigating complex cognitive processes. The authors' current SDT ideal observer analysis of the model demonstrates that related priming does not directly alter sensitivity and that unrelated priming increases only false-alarm rate, reducing sensitivity. This analysis provides new perspectives on SDT concepts of complex decision processing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A cognitive and social psychological analysis of disclosure laws and call for mortgage counseling to prevent predatory lending.

The federal government’s primary method of protecting consumers from “predatory lending” has been to enact disclosure laws that were supposed to enable consumers to make informed decisions. This article contends that notwithstanding these disclosure laws, unscrupulous mortgage brokers and lenders have been able to take advantage of certain described cognitive and social psychological phenomena to induce borrowers to enter into predatory loans, and argues that disclosures alone—even the recently revised disclosure forms—are inadequate. To better empower consumers to make informed decisions on their home loans, this article proposes and details a mortgage counseling intervention that contains both “in-person” and interactive computer counseling as a necessary supplement to disclosure laws. Designed properly, such an intervention would more effectively address the cognitive and social psychological barriers to rational decision making than disclosure alone. The article also examines the likely costs and benefits of the proposed mortgage counseling intervention in light of Illinois experience with mortgage counseling and urges policymakers to consider not only the costs of implementing mortgage counseling but also the costs of not providing for this counseling. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health.

Self-determination theory (SDT) is an empirically based theory of human motivation, development, and wellness. The theory focuses on types, rather than just amount, of motivation, paying particular attention to autonomous motivation, controlled motivation, and amotivation as predictors of performance, relational, and well-being outcomes. It also addresses the social conditions that enhance versus diminish these types of motivation, proposing and finding that the degrees to which basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are supported versus thwarted affect both the type and strength of motivation. SDT also examines people's life goals or aspirations, showing differential relations of intrinsic versus extrinsic life goals to performance and psychological health. In this introduction we also briefly discuss recent developments within SDT concerning mindfulness and vitality, and highlight the applicability of SDT within applied domains, including work, relationships, parenting, education, virtual environments, sport, sustainability, health care, and psychotherapy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Advancing “the boldest model yet”: A commentary on psychology, religion, and spirituality.

Following O’Donahue’s (1989) consideration of the psychologist as metaphysician-scientist-practitioner, Jones (1994) proposed, “the boldest model yet” in which “religion could participate as an active partner with psychology as a science and as an applied discipline” (p. 184). Lisa Miller goes a step farther in her call for a spiritual psychology, which extends “a map of human experience beyond the material” and offers “the vast possibility of the science of psychology...to generate new methods beyond materialism” (see record 2010-09501-001). Each of the articles in this section illustrates what can be gained in reaching beyond materialism to meaning. Len Sperry (see record 2010-03251-006) advocates for a holistic, postmaterialist perspective to health, which de-emphasizes pathology and symptom reduction as the singular focus. Embedded in his thesis is the intricate connection between mind and body, yet he resists the unified model of scientific naturalism on the grounds that it “represents a biologization of spirituality.” The final article in this special section calls into question the fundamental assumptions of materialist psychology. Bruce Greyson’s study (see record 2010-03251-005) of near-death experiences challenges the assumption that the mind and the brain are identical and that psychological phenomena can be readily explained by existing physiological models. Will such challenges be embraced and will more fundamental questions be taken up, though it means that certain truth claims may need to be put aside? (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Visual search for orientation among heterogeneous distractors: Experimental results and implications for signal-detection theory models of search.

Three experiments tested a signal-detection theory (SDT) model of visual search (e.g., as described in J. Palmer, C. T. Ames, & D. T. Lindsey, 1993). In Experiment 1, participants searched for a 0° line among distractors at (a) 30°; (b) ? at 30°, ? at 50°; (c) ? at 30°, 50°, and 70°; and (d) ? at 30°, ? at 70°. The SDT model predicts improved performance in the more heterogeneous conditions, as some distractors are more discriminable from the target. In contrast, in Experiment 1 human performance degraded in the more heterogeneous conditions (c and d). In Experiment 2, sparser displays improved the performance of the SDT model. In Experiment 3, search for θ° among homogeneous θ?+?20° distractors was compared with search for θ° among θ?±?20° distractors. Performance in the latter condition was often worse, relative to performance in the homogeneous condition, than predicted by the SDT model; however, this depended greatly on the identity of the target. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Nonrational processes in ethical decision making.

Most current ethical decision-making models provide a logical and reasoned process for making ethical judgments, but these models are empirically unproven and rely upon assumptions of rational, conscious, and quasilegal reasoning. Such models predominate despite the fact that many nonrational factors influence ethical thought and behavior, including context, perceptions, relationships, emotions, and heuristics. For example, a large body of behavioral research has demonstrated the importance of automatic intuitive and affective processes in decision making and judgment. These processes profoundly affect human behavior and lead to systematic biases and departures from normative theories of rationality. Their influence represents an important but largely unrecognized component of ethical decision making. We selectively review this work; provide various illustrations; and make recommendations for scientists, trainers, and practitioners to aid them in integrating the understanding of nonrational processes with ethical decision making. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Bridging the gap between physiology and behavior: Evidence from the sSoTS model of human visual attention.

We present the case for a role of biologically plausible neural network modeling in bridging the gap between physiology and behavior. We argue that spiking-level networks can allow “vertical” translation between physiological properties of neural systems and emergent “whole-system” performance—enabling psychological results to be simulated from implemented networks and also inferences to be made from simulations concerning processing at a neural level. These models also emphasize particular factors (e.g., the dynamics of performance in relation to real-time neuronal processing) that are not highlighted in other approaches and that can be tested empirically. We illustrate our argument from neural-level models that select stimuli by biased competition. We show that a model with biased competition dynamics can simulate data ranging from physiological studies of single-cell activity (Study 1) to whole-system behavior in human visual search (Study 2), while also capturing effects at an intermediate level, including performance breakdown after neural lesion (Study 3) and data from brain imaging (Study 4). We also show that, at each level of analysis, novel predictions can be derived from the biologically plausible parameters adopted, which we proceed to test (Study 5). We argue that, at least for studying the dynamics of visual attention, the approach productively links single-cell to psychological data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)