Temperature rise measurement for power-loss comparison of an aluminum electrolytic capacitor between sinusoidal and square-wave current injections

DC-link capacitors are a major factor of degrading reliability of power electric converters because they usually have a shorter lifetime and higher failure rate than those of semiconductor devices or magnetic devices. Characteristics of the capacitors are usually evaluated by a single sinusoidal current waveform. However, actual current flowing out of the converter into the capacitor is a modulated square current waveform. This paper provides experimental comparison of the power loss dissipated in an aluminum electrolytic capacitor between sinusoidal and square-wave current injections. Power loss is estimated by temperature rise of the capacitor. Experimental results confirm that power losses of the square-wave current injection were always lower than those of the sinusoidal current injection by 10–20%. Moreover, the power losses of the square-wave current injection can be estimated by a synthesis of fundamental and harmonic currents based on the Fourier series expansion, which brings a high accuracy less than 1% when more than fifth harmonic current is introduced. This comparison will be useful for estimating power loss and life time of electrolytic capacitors.     

Resonant gate driver with efficient gate energy recovery and switching loss reduction

This article describes a novel resonant gate driver for charging the gate capacitor of power metal-oxide semiconductor field-effect-transistors (MOSFETs) that operate at a high switching frequency in power converters. The proposed resonant gate driver is designed with three small MOSFETs to build up the inductor current in addition to an inductor for temporary energy storage. The proposed resonant gate driver recovers the CV² gate loss, which is the largest loss dissipated in the gate resistance in conventional gate drivers. In addition, the switching loss is reduced at the instants of turn on and turn off in the power MOSFETs of power converters by using the proposed gate driver. Mathematical analyses of the total loss appearing in the gate driver circuit and the switching loss reduction in the power switch of power converters are discussed. Finally, the proposed resonant gate driver is verified with experimental results at a switching frequency of 1 MHz.     

Software-Reconfigurable e-Learning Platform for Power Electronics Courses

An effective course in power electronics should ideally contain hands-on design and experimental work as well as theory explanation and simulations. In this paper, a software- reconfigurable e-learning platform for power electronics courses is proposed. The aim of the proposed system is to realize a platform capable of constructing a wide range of circuit topologies and control techniques, thus enabling students to gain a better understanding of power electronics converters through practical experiments. The proposed platform consists of a reconfigurable power electronics testbed, a Web-based distance laboratory, and a user interactive e-learning platform. The reconfigurable power electronics testbed can be configured by the students via a Web- based interface to construct a wide variety of converters and inverters. The Internet accessible distance laboratory system permits the instructors and students to remotely conduct experiments over the Internet. The integrated interactive multimedia material can support the educational environment of power electronics courses and can be executed on any modern personal computer (PC) without additional hardware. The advantages of the proposed platform include flexibility, friendly user interface, allow for distance waveform measurements, and removal of laboratory time and space constraints. The positive response from students indicates that the proposed platform is extremely useful for power electronics courses.     

Loss-Free Balancing Circuit for Series Connection of Electrolytic Capacitors Using an Auxiliary Switch-Mode Power Supply

Most of today's power converters such as three-phase variable-speed drives, uninterruptible power systems, welding converters, and telecom and server power supplies are based on voltage-source converters equipped with bulky dc-link electrolytic capacitors. To be able to handle full dc bus voltage, the dc bus capacitor is arranged as series-connected electrolytic capacitors rated at lower voltage. An electrolytic capacitor, however, is not an ideal capacitor. It has significant leakage current that strongly depends on the capacitor temperature, voltage, and ageing conditions. To compensate large dispersion of the leakage current and ensure acceptable sharing of the total dc bus voltage among the series-connected capacitors, a passive balancing circuit is often used. Drawbacks of the ordinary passive balancing circuit, such as size, significant losses, and standby consumption are discussed in this paper. An active loss-free balancing circuit, which utilizes an auxiliary switch-mode power supply (SMPS) to equalize the capacitor voltages, is proposed. The capacitors midpoint (MP) is connected to the SMPS via two devices; namely a current injection device and a compensation device. The current injection device injects current into the capacitors MP, while the compensation device sinks the difference between the capacitor leakage currents and the injected current. As a result, the capacitor voltages are controlled and maintained in the desired ratio. The proposed balancing technique is theoretically analyzed and experimentally verified on a laboratory setup. The results are presented and discussed.      

Modeling of capacitor impedance in switching converters

Switched capacitor (SC) converters are gaining acceptance as alternatives to traditional, inductor-based switching power converters. Proper design of SC converters requires an understanding of all loss sources and their impacts on circuit operation. In the present work, an equivalent resistance method is developed for analysis, and equivalent resistance formulae are presented for various modes of operation. Quasiresonant converters are explored and compared to standard SC converters. Comparisons to inductor-based switching power converters are made. A number of capacitor technologies are evaluated and compared for applications to both SC converters and inductor-based converters. The resulting model can be used to accurately predict and optimize converter performance in the design phase.     

A Flexible Loss-Minimizing and Stress-Sharing Switch Cell for Power Converters

A switch cell named split-cell for power converters is proposed. Basically it is composed of two split bridge cells with identical power ratings. Two small resonant inductors are introduced to enable zero-voltage-switching (ZVS) operation of the split-cell. An external snubber capacitor can also be employed to further reduce turn-off losses of all the switches. With flexible and smooth mode-changing operation, the two internal bridge cells can perfectly share the stresses. Simulations and experiments have been conducted. The results have verified the expected performance for the split-cell. The split-cell can be used in high power and high frequency applications to reduce system losses, stresses, and improve reliability.     

基于粒子群算法的LCLC谐振变换器优化设计

LCLC谐振变换器广泛应用在空间行波管放大器(TWTA)中,起到升压的作用。在LCLC谐振变换器中,具有多个谐振参数,即变压器漏感、串联谐振电容、励磁电感以及并联谐振电容。多个谐振参数增加了LCLC谐振变换器总损耗优化的难度。该文提出一种基于粒子群优化算法的LCLC谐振变换器优化设计方法,解决LCLC谐振变换器由于多个谐振参数造成的总损耗优化困难的问题。首先,推导了LCLC谐振变换器的总损耗公式;其次,采用粒子群优化算法,对LCLC谐振变换器的总损耗进行了优化,得到了总损耗最小时的谐振变换器参数;最后,基于优化的LCLC谐振变换器参数,搭建了LCLC谐振变换器,并进行了一系列实验。实验结果证明了该优化设计方法的有效性。     

Heat management for power converters in sealed enclosures: A numerical study

This paper compares four assembly solutions for power converters operating in sealed enclosures with tight temperature specifications. The specific application of interest is one of the DC/DC converters of a power supply system to be used in high-energy-physics experiments: the sealed case must not significantly alter the temperature of the surrounding components (detectors and their electronics). The comparison is made using 3D Finite Element thermal modeling. The standard FR4 board solution is shown not to be viable under these tight temperature specs; we therefore explore alternative assemblies for the stack connecting the active devices to the heat-sink.     

基于矩阵变换器的电力电子变压器

矩阵式变换器是一种新型的交交直接变换的电源变换器,可以实现交流电诸参数(相数、相位、幅值、频率)的变换。和传统的变换器相比,它具有不需要中间直流储能环节;功率双相流动:具有优良的输入电流波形和输出电压波形;可自由控制的功率因数等优点。采用矩阵变换器的电力电子变压器省略了繁重的储能电容,省去直流环节的电容,可减小温度变化对系统的影响。因此基于变换矩阵的电力电子变压器更适合大功率系统,并且适合于在未来高温的电力变换场合。     

Simple Unified Approach to Develop a Time-Domain Modulation Strategy for Single-Phase Multilevel Converters

Single-phase power converters are widely used in power applications as photovoltaics and fuel-cell power conditioners. In addition, multilevel converters are a well-known solution in order to achieve high-quality output waveforms in power systems. In this paper, a time-domain duty-cycle computation technique for single-phase multilevel converters named 1DM is presented. The proposed technique is based on geometrical calculations with outstanding simplicity and generality. The proposed modulation technique can be easily applied to any multilevel converter topology carrying out the necessary calculations. The most common multilevel converter topologies have been studied in this paper as examples to introduce the proposed modulation strategy. Any other multilevel converter topology could be studied, and the corresponding 1DM could be easily developed. In addition, the well-known optimized voltage balance strategy for voltage capacitor control using the redundant switching states of the system is applied working with the proposed 1DM method, showing that both techniques are compatible. Experimental and simulation results for several single-phase multilevel converters are shown to validate the proposed modulation technique.      

Reliability considerations in pulsed power resonant conversion

This work is about the analysis of reliability issues in pulsed power resonant converters, which feature fairly unique operational characteristics, differentiating them substantially from more common power electronics applications (e.g., inverters, dc–dc converters). First, an overview of the converter functioning is provided; then, an a priori minimisation of the electro-thermal stress levels affecting the active switches (IGBTs) is searched for: this is based on an experimental parametric study of the turn-off snubber and of the DC-link capacitance value for which the overall switching power losses can be minimised. Accurate measurements of the switching losses in the IGBT modules are performed by means of a calorimetric technique. Finally, infra-red measurements of the IGBTs surface temperature during transient operation are presented, showing that the introduction of soft-switching strongly reduces the amplitude of lower frequency thermal cycles.     

Reliability analysis of component-level redundant topologies for solid-state fault current limiter

Experience shows that semiconductor switches in power electronics systems are the most vulnerable components. One of the most common ways to solve this reliability challenge is component-level redundant design. There are four possible configurations for the redundant design in component level. This article presents a comparative reliability analysis between different component-level redundant designs for solid-state fault current limiter. The aim of the proposed analysis is to determine the more reliable component-level redundant configuration. The mean time to failure (MTTF) is used as the reliability parameter. Considering both fault types (open circuit and short circuit), the MTTFs of different configurations are calculated. It is demonstrated that more reliable configuration depends on the junction temperature of the semiconductor switches in the steady state. That junction temperature is a function of (i) ambient temperature, (ii) power loss of the semiconductor switch and (iii) thermal resistance of heat sink. Also, results’ sensitivity to each parameter is investigated. The results show that in different conditions, various configurations have higher reliability. The experimental results are presented to clarify the theory and feasibility of the proposed approaches. At last, levelised costs of different configurations are analysed for a fair comparison.     

Impact of distributed power electronics on the lifetime and reliability of PV systems

This paper quantifies the impact of distributed power electronics in photovoltaic (PV) systems in terms of end‐of‐life energy‐capture performance and reliability. The analysis is based on simulations of PV installations over system lifetime at various degradation rates. It is shown how module‐level or submodule‐level power converters can mitigate variations in cell degradation over time, effectively increasing the system lifespan by 5–10 years compared with the nominal 25‐year lifetime. An important aspect typically overlooked when characterizing such improvements is the reliability of distributed power electronics, as power converter failures may not only diminish energy yield improvements but also adversely affect the overall system operation. Failure models are developed, and power electronics reliability is taken into account in this work, in order to provide a more comprehensive view of the opportunities and limitations offered by distributed power electronics in PV systems. It is shown how a differential power‐processing approach achieves the best mismatch mitigation performance and the least susceptibility to converter faults. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Soft switching resonant converter with duty-cycle control in DC micro-grid system

Resonant converter has been widely used for the benefits of low switching losses and high circuit efficiency. However, the wide frequency variation is the main drawback of resonant converter. This paper studies a new modular resonant converter with duty-cycle control to overcome this problem and realise the advantages of low switching losses, no reverse recovery current loss, balance input split voltages and constant frequency operation for medium voltage direct currentgrid or system network. Series full-bridge (FB) converters are used in the studied circuit in order to reduce the voltage stresses and power rating on power semiconductors. Flying capacitor is used between two FB converters to balance input split voltages. Two circuit modules are paralleled on the secondary side to lessen the current rating of rectifier diodes and the size of magnetic components. The resonant tank is operated at inductive load circuit to help power switches to be turned on at zero voltage with wide load range. The pulse-width modulation scheme is used to regulate output voltage. Experimental verifications are provided to show the performance of the proposed circuit.     

A study of active power filters using quad-series voltage-sourcePWM converters for harmonic compensation

An active power filter using quad-series voltage-source pulse-width-modulated (PWM) converters to suppress AC harmonics by injecting compensating currents into the AC system is described. The circuit used to calculate the compensating current references, the compensation characteristics, and the capability of the DC capacitor are discussed theoretically and experimentally. A control circuit for the DC capacitor voltage is proposed. The discussions focus on transient states, based on the instantaneous reactive power theory. A passive LC filter is designed to remove the switching voltage and current ripples caused by the PWM converters at the AC side. Some experimental results that illustrate the details of the study are shown     

分布电容对高频高压变压器性能的影响及其控制措施

高频高压变压器的微小分布电容对变压器的性能和带有变压器的高频高压电源的性能有着重要影响,分布电容会加大变压器的损耗,降低了变换器的功率因数和效率。文中分析了高频高压变压器匝间电容和层间电容的大小对高频高压变压器的电压分布和可靠性的影响,指出减小层间分布电容和降低单层电压对变压器的可靠运行的重要意义。通过对不同绕组结构型式下的层间分布电容大小的分析和比较,指出采用＂Z＂型绕法和＂∠＂型绕法能够进一步减小高频高压变压器的层间分布电容,同时降低了变压器的绝缘要求,大幅改善高频高压变压器的电压分布,提高了变压器的绝缘耐压水平和可靠性。     

Metallized polymer film capacitors ageing law based on capacitance degradation

Passive components, particularly capacitors, are very used devices in power electronics applications providing key function on board. Nevertheless, capacitors breakdowns can have catastrophic consequences on the financial and human scale; a good acquaintance of their deterioration over time would contribute in the improvement of the availability of the whole system by performing a predictive maintenance on the component. This operation requires the knowledge of the capacitor ageing law and their failure mechanisms associated to the application. Capacitance loss can be mainly attributed to the self-healing process occurring in metallized film capacitors when used under high steady electrical and thermal stresses. In this paper, a capacitance ageing law is proposed based on the identification of voltage and temperature degradation kinetics from three experimental floating ageing tests performed at different voltage and temperature constraints. A total of 34 capacitors provided from different manufacturers using polyester film as dielectric have been studied and compared to validate the proposed law.     

An RC load model of parallel and series-parallel resonant DC-DCconverters with capacitive output filter

A novel analytical methodology is proposed and applied to investigate the steady-state processes in voltage-fed parallel and series-parallel resonant DC-DC power converters with a capacitive output filter. In this methodology, the rectifier, output capacitor and load are replaced by an equivalent circuit which includes a capacitor and resistor connected in parallel. Excellent agreement was obtained when comparing numerical values calculated by the proposed model to cycle-by-cycle SPICE simulation and to the numerical results of earlier studies     

A power management circuit with 50% efficiency and large load capacity for triboelectric nanogenerator

Recently, triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs), as a collection technology with characteristics of high reliability, high energy density and low cost, has attracted more and more attention. However, the energy coming from TENGs needs to be stored in a storage unit effectively due to its unstable ac output. The traditional energy storage circuit has an extremely low energy storage efficiency for TENGs because of their high internal impedance. This paper presents a new power management circuit used to optimize the energy using efficiency of TENGs, and realize large load capacity. The power management circuit mainly includes rectification storage circuit and DC-DC management circuit. A rotating TENG with maximal energy output of 106 mW at 170 rpm based on PCB is used for the experimental verification. Experimental results show that the power energy transforming to the storage capacitor reach up to 53 mW and the energy using efficiency is calculated as 50%. When different loading resistances range from 0.82 to 34.5 kΩ are connected to the storage capacitor in parallel, the power energy stored in the storage capacitor is all about 52.5 mW. Getting through the circuit, the power energy coming from the TENGs can be used to drive numerous conventional electronics, such as wearable watches.     

Recent Developments in Fault Detection and Power Loss Estimation of Electrolytic Capacitors

This paper proposes a comparative study of current-controlled hysteresis and pulsewidth modulation (PWM) techniques, and their influence upon power loss dissipation in a power-factor controller (PFC) output filtering capacitors. First, theoretical calculation of low-frequency and high-frequency components of the capacitor current is presented in the two cases, as well as the total harmonic distortion of the source current. Second, we prove that the methods already used to determine the capacitor power losses are not accurate because of the capacitor model chosen. In fact, a new electric equivalent scheme of electrolytic capacitors is determined using genetic algorithms. This model, characterized by frequency-independent parameters, redraws with accuracy the capacitor behavior for large frequency and temperature ranges. Thereby, the new capacitor model is integrated into the converter, and then, software simulation is carried out to determine the power losses for both control techniques. Due to this model, the equivalent series resistance (ESR) increase at high frequencies due to the skin effect is taken into account. Finally, for hysteresis and PWM controls, we suggest a method to determine the value of the series resistance and the remaining time to failure, based on the measurement of the output ripple voltage at steady-state and transient-state converter working.