Synthesis and characterization of high‐density polypropylene‐grafted polyethylene via a macromolecular reaction and its rheological behavior

High‐density polyethylene grafted isotactic polypropylene (PP‐g‐HDPE) was prepared by the imidization reaction between maleic anhydride grafted polyethylene and amine‐grafted polypropylene in a xylene solution. The branch density was adjusted by changes in the molar ratio between maleic anhydride and primary amine groups. Dynamic rheology tests were conducted to compare the rheological properties of linear polyolefins and long‐chain‐branched polyolefins. The effects of the density of long‐chain branches on the rheological properties were also investigated. It was found that long‐chain‐branched hybrid polyolefins had a higher storage modulus at a low frequency, a higher zero shear viscosity, a reduced phase angle, enhanced shear sensitivities, and a longer relaxation time. As the branch density was increased, the characteristics of the long‐chain‐branched structure became profounder. The flow activation energy of PP‐g‐HDPE was lower than that of neat maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (PP‐g‐MAH) because of the lower flow activation energy of maleic anhydride grafted high‐density polyethylene (HDPE‐g‐MAH). However, the flow activation energy of PP‐g‐HDPE was higher than that of PP‐g‐MAH/HDPE‐g‐MAH blends because of the presence of long‐chain branches. © 2008 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009     

Kinetics for chlorination of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene

Preparation of Chlorinated maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (Cl‐PP‐g‐MAH) by free radical process was carried out using carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) as the solvent and benzoperoxide (BPO) as the initiator. Effects of reaction temperature, concentrations of PP‐g‐MAH and BPO on the rate of chlorination were studied. The experimental results showed the actual rate constant for chlorination of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene followed the Arrhenius law and the total apparent activation energy was 19.7 kJ mol^?1. The kinetic model for chlorination of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene was found to be R = K[BPO]^0.53[C]^0.93. The properties of chlorination of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene were better than those of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene. The products were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 2007     

Study on the microstructure and properties of bromobutyl rubber (BIIR)/polyamide‐12 (PA12) thermoplastic vulcanizates (TPVs)

In this study, polyamide‐12 (PA12)/brominated isobutylene‐isoprene (BIIR) TPVs with good mechanical properties and low gas permeability were prepared by dynamic vulcanization in a twin‐screw extruder. The effects of three kinds of compatibilizers on the microstructure and properties of BIIR/PA12 TPV were studied. The compatibility between BIIR and PA12 was improved when maleated hydrocarbon polymeric compatibilizer is added. The reaction between maleic anhydride and amine in polyamide leads to the in situ formation of hydrocarbon polymer grafted polyamide which subsequently can be used to lower the interfacial tension between BIIR and polyamide. The compatibilizing effect of maleic anhydride modified polypropylene (PP‐g‐MAH) on BIIR/PA12 blends is the best among these compatibilizers because the surface energy of PP‐g‐MAH is very close to that of BIIR. The dispersed rubber phase of the blend compatibilized by PP‐g‐MAH shows the smallest size and more uniform size distribution, and the resulting TPVs show the best mechanical properties. The effects of fillers on the properties of BIIR/PA12 TPV were also investigated. The size of the BIIR phase increases with the increase in the content of CaCO₃. The modulus and tensile strength of TPVs increased with the increase in the content of CaCO₃ because of the reinforcing effect of CaCO₃ on TPVs. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 43043.     

Investigation on β‐polypropylene/PP‐g‐MAH/ surface‐treated calcium carbonate composites

β‐Polypropylene composites containing calcium carbonate treated by titanate coupling agent (T‐CaCO₃) and maleic anhydride grafted PP (PP‐g‐MAH) were prepared by melt compounding. The crystallization, morphology and mechanical properties of the composites were investigated by means of differential scanning calorimetry, wide‐angle X‐ray diffraction, polarized light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and mechanical tests. It is found that both T‐CaCO₃ and NT‐C are able to induce the formation of β‐phase, and NT‐C greatly increases the β content and decreases the spherulitic size of PP. PP‐g‐MAH facilitates the formation of β‐form PP and improves the compatibility between T‐CaCO₃ and PP. Izod notched impact strength of β‐PP/T‐CaCO₃ composite is higher than that of PP/T‐CaCO₃ composite, indicating the synergistic toughening effect of T‐CaCO₃ and β‐PP. Incorporation of PP‐g‐MAH into β‐PP/T‐CaCO₃ composite further increases the content of β‐crystal PP and improves the impact strength and tensile strength when T‐CaCO₃ concentration is below 5 wt%. The nonisothermal crystallization kinetics of β‐PP composites is well described by Jeziorny's and Mo's methods. It is found that NT‐C and T‐CaCO₃ accelerate the crystallization rate of PP but the influence of PP‐g‐MAH on crystallization rate of β‐PP composite is marginal. POLYM. COMPOS., 2012. © 2012 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Crystallization behavior of PP/PP‐g‐MAH/GFR PA66 blends: Establishment of their continuous‐cooling‐transformation of relative crystallinity diagrams

Polypropylene/polypropylene‐grafted‐maleic anhydride/glass fiber reinforced polyamide 66 (PP/PP‐g‐MAH/GFR PA 66) blends‐composites with and without the addition of polypropylene‐grafted‐maleic anhydride (PP‐g‐MAH) were prepared in a twin screw extruder. The effect of the compatibilizer on the thermal properties and crystallization behavior was determined using differential scanning calorimetry analysis. The hold time was set to be equal to 5 min at 290°C. These conditions are necessary to eliminate the thermomechanical history in the molten state. The crystallization under nonisothermal conditions and the plot of Continuous‐Cooling‐Transformation of relative crystallinity diagrams of both PP and PA 66 components proves that PP is significantly affected by the presence of PP‐g‐MAH. From the results it is found that an abrupt change is observed at 2.5 wt % of PP‐g‐MAH as a compatibilizer and then levels off. In these blends, concurrent crystallization behavior was not observed for GFR PA66. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 104: 1620–1626, 2007     

Melt grafting of maleic anhydride onto polypropylene with 1‐decene as a second monomer

The influence of 1‐decene as the second monomer on the melt‐grafting behavior of maleic anhydride (MAH) onto polypropylene (PP) was studied with differential scanning calorimetry and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. We found that the value of the grafting degree increased from 0.68% for pure MAH‐g‐PP to 1.43% for the system with a 1‐decene/MAH molar ratio of 0.3, whereas the maximum value with styrene (St) as the second monomer was 0.98% under an St/MAH molar ratio of 1.0. Compared with the contribution of St/MAH‐g‐PP to the peeling strength between the PP and polyamide (PA) layer for a PP/PA laminated film, the introduction of 1‐decene/MAH‐g‐PP increased the peeling strength from 180 g/15 mm to 250 g/15 mm. 1‐Decene inhibited the chain scission behavior of PP. 1‐Decene reacted with MAH to form a 1‐decene/MAH copolymer or the Alder‐ene reaction product before the two monomers grafted onto PP. The grafting of the reactive product onto PP greatly improved the grafting degree of MAH. What is more, because of the similar chemical structures of 1‐decene and PP, the affinity of 1‐decene with PP was higher than that of St. Compared with St, the introduction of less 1‐decene led to a higher grafting degree and higher peeling strength. Therefore, we concluded that 1‐decene was more effective for improving the grafting degree of MAH onto PP. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

Effect of maleic‐anhydride‐grafted polypropylene as a compatibilizer on the properties of polypropylene/(modified carbon black) composites

Maleic‐anhydride‐grafted polypropylene (PP‐g‐MAH) was added, as a compatibilizer, to polypropylene (PP) composites filled with a hindered phenol and modified carbon black (CB). The interaction between the modified CB and PP‐g‐MAH, as proved by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, had a beneficial effect on the mechanical properties of the PP/(modified CB) composites and prevented the sharp decrease of the mechanical properties of these composites at higher filler concentration. The storage modulus of PP/(modified CB) was increased significantly by the incorporation of PP‐g‐MAH, especially when the temperature was lower than 0°C. When the content of PP‐g‐MAH was 5 wt% and the loading of the modified CB was 2 wt%, the best tensile strength was obtained. The system showed the best flexural strength and impact strength when the loading of the modified CB was 1 wt%. J. VINYL ADDIT. TECHNOL., 2011. © 2011 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Modification of polypropylene via the free‐radical grafting ternary monomer in water suspension systems

Maleic anhydride, styrene, and butyl acrylate were grafted onto polypropylene (PP) via free‐radical polymerization. The grafted product, polypropylene‐g‐(maleic anhydride–styrene–butyl acrylate) (PP‐g‐PMSB), was prepared in a water suspension system, and a nongrafted polymer, poly(maleic anhydride–styrene–butyl acrylate) (PMSB′), was produced at the same time. The optimal synthesis conditions were determined by orthogonal experiments. The crystallinity, thermal stability, melt flow rate, and hydrophilicity of the grafting samples were investigated in the presence or absence of PMSB′. The results indicate that the grafting percentage (G_p) of PP‐g‐PMSB and the content of PMSB′ (C_m) increased as the monomer content increased under the optimum reaction conditions. All of these ternary monomers were grafted onto the PP backbone as long‐chain branches. With increasing G_p, PP‐g‐PMSB's polarity and thermal stability increased, the crystallinity decreased, and the molecular distribution became narrower. The contact angle decreased to 72.12° when G_p was 6.87%. With increasing C_m, the crystallinity and thermal stability of the grafting products decreased compared to PP‐g‐PMSB and the molecular distribution grew wider. The contact angle decreased to 63.51° when C_m was 3.64%; this indicated that the presence of PMSB′ further improved the hydrophilicity of the grafted products. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012     

马来酸酐接枝聚丙烯的合成及PP-g-PEG的制备

采用溶液聚合方法,以极性马来酸酐(MAH)为桥接剂,利用其上的酸酐基团和聚乙二醇(PEG)的端羟基进行酯化反应制备聚乙二醇接枝聚丙烯。用正交实验考察马来酸酐用量,加料次数,过氧化苯甲酰(BPO)用量及反应温度等参数对产物接枝率的影响,找出影响因素的显著性,最后利用得到的产品制备聚乙二醇接枝聚丙烯。利用红外光谱(IR)、热重分析(TG)、及差示扫描量热分析(DSC)对PP-g-MAH、PP-g-PEG的结构进行表征。     

The effect of epoxy and tetramethyl thiuram disulfide on melt‐grafting of maleic anhydride onto polypropylene by reactive extrusion

In this report, melt grafting of maleic anhydride (MAH) and epoxy resin onto polypropylene (PP) by peroxide‐initiated reactive extrusion has been investigated. As evidenced by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, both MAH and epoxy resin were successfully grafted onto PP through the reactions of MAH with PP and epoxy resin with MAH. It was found that tetramethyl thiuram disulfide could promote the grafting of MAH and inhibit the degradation of PP, as revealed by chemical titration and melt flow experiments, through prolonging the lifetime of the macroradical; meanwhile, epoxy resin could reduce the sublimation of MAH and the maximum grafting degree of MAH. Furthermore, the introduction of grafted products was found to enhance the mechanical properties of PP/glass fiber composites, and this influence was very significant at high grafting degrees with a high content of epoxy resin, which could be interpreted in terms of improved compatibility and adhesion at the interface. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 43422.     

Effect of maleic anhydride/vinyltrimethoxysilane‐co‐grafting polypropylene on the properties of wood‐flour/polypropylene composites by electron‐beam preirradiation

The electron‐beam preirradiation and reactive extrusion technologies were used to prepare maleic anhydride (MAH)/vinyltrimethoxysilane (VTMS)‐co‐grafting polypropylene (PP) as a high‐performance compatibilizer for wood‐flour/PP composites. The grafting content, chemical structure, and crystallization behavior of the compatibilizers were characterized through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and an extraction method. The effects of the compatibilizers on the mechanical properties, water absorption, morphological structure, and torque rheological behavior of the composites were investigated comparatively. The experimental results demonstrate that MAH/VTMS‐g‐PP markedly enhanced the mechanical properties of the composites. Compared with MAH‐g‐PP and VTMS‐g‐PP, MAH/VTMS‐g‐PP clearly showed synergistic effects on the increasing mechanical properties, water absorption, and compatibility of the composites. Scanning electron microscopy further confirmed that the adhesion and dispersion of wood flours in the composites were effectively improved by MAH/VTMS‐g‐PP. These results were also proven by the best water resistance of the wood‐flour/PP composites with MAH/VTMS‐g‐PP. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

Effect of interfacial interaction on the crystallization and mechanical properties of PP/nano‐CaCO3 composites modified by compatibilizers

To investigate the effect of interfacial interaction on the crystallization and mechanical properties of polypropylene (PP)/nano‐CaCO₃ composites, three kinds of compatibilizers [PP grafted with maleic anhydride (PP‐g‐MA), ethylene–octene copolymer grafted with MA (POE‐g‐MA), and ethylene–vinyl acetate copolymer grafted with MA (EVA‐g‐MA)] with the same polar groups (MA) but different backbones were used as compatibilizers to obtain various interfacial interactions among nano‐CaCO₃, compatibilizer, and PP. The results indicated that compatibilizers encapsulated nano‐CaCO₃ particles, forming a core–shell structure, and two interfaces were obtained in the compatibilized composites: interface between PP and compatibilizer and interface between compatibilizer and nano‐CaCO₃ particles. The crystallization and mechanical properties of PP/nano‐CaCO₃ composites were dependent on the interfacial interactions of these two interfaces, especially the interfacial interaction between PP and compatibilizer. The good compatibility between PP chain in PP‐g‐MA and PP matrix improved the dispersion of nano‐CaCO₃ particles, favored the nucleation effect of nano‐CaCO₃, increased the tensile strength and modulus, but reduced the ductility and impact strength of composites. The partial compatibility between POE in POE‐g‐MA and PP matrix had little effect on crystallization and mechanical properties of PP/nano‐CaCO₃ composites. The poor compatibility between EVA in EVA‐g‐MA and PP matrix retarded the nucleation effect of nano‐CaCO₃, and reduced the tensile strength, modulus, and impact strength. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009     

Extrusion foaming behavior of a polypropylene/nanoclay microcellular foam

With maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (PP‐g‐MAH) as a compatibilizer, composites of block‐copolymerized polypropylene (B‐PP)/nanoclay were prepared. The effects of the PP‐g‐MAH and nanoclay content on the crystallization and rheological properties of B‐PP were investigated. The microcellular foaming behavior of the B‐PP/nanoclay composite material was studied with a single‐screw extruder foaming system with supercritical (SC) carbon dioxide (CO₂) as the foaming agent. The experimental results show that the addition of nanoclay and PP‐g‐MAH decreased the melt strength and complex viscosity of B‐PP. When 3 wt % SC CO₂ was injected as the foaming agent for the extrusion foaming process, the introduction of nanoclay and PP‐g‐MAH significantly increased the expansion ratio of the obtained foamed samples as compared with that of the pure B‐PP matrix, lowered the die pressure, and increased the cell population density of the foamed samples to some extent. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Appl. Polym. Sci. 2016 , 133, 44094.     

Effects of clay contents on the dynamic mechanical and rheological properties of polypropylene/MAH‐g‐POE/clay composites

A series of polypropylene/maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene octane elastomer (MAH‐g‐POE)/clay (PPMC) nanocomposites were prepared with a novel compatilizer MAH‐g‐POE and different contents of octadecyl amine modified montmorillonite, and the effects of clay contents on the dynamic mechanical and rheological properties of these PPMC composites were investigated. With clay content increasing, the characteristic X‐ray diffraction peak changed from one to two with intensity decreasing, indicating the decreasing concentration of the intercalated clay layers. The gradual decrease of crystallization temperature of PPMC composites with the increase of clay loading should be attributed to the preferred intercalation of MAH‐g‐POE molecules into clay interlayer during blending, which is also reflected by scanning electron microscopy observations. By evaluating the activation energy for the glass transition process of MAH‐g‐POE and polypropylene (PP) in the PPMC composites, it is found that clay intercalation could cause the restriction effect on the glass transition of both MAH‐g‐POE and PP, and this restriction effect appears stronger for PP and attained the highest degree at 5 wt % clay loading. The melt elasticity of PP could be improved apparently by the addition of MAH‐g‐POE, and 5 wt % clay loading is enough for further enhancing the elastic proportion of PP. © 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009     

Effect of the compatibilizer on the morphology and properties of dynamically cured PP/POE/epoxy blends

Dynamic vulcanization was successfully applied to epoxy resin reinforced polypropylene (PP)/ethylene‐octene copolymer (POE) blends, and the effects of different compatibilizers on the morphology and properties of dynamically cured PP/POE/epoxy blends were studied. The results show that dynamically cured PP/POE/epoxy blends compatibilized with maleic anhydride‐grafted polypropylene (MAH‐g‐PP) have a three‐phase structure consisting of POE and epoxy particles dispersed in the PP continuous phase, and these blends had improved tensile strength and flexural modulus. While using maleic anhydride‐grafted POE (MAH‐g‐POE) as a compatibilizer, the structure of the core‐shell complex phase and the PP continuous phase showed that epoxy particles could be embedded in MAH‐g‐POE in the blends, and gave rise to an increase in impact strength, while retaining a certain strength and modulus. DSC analysis showed that the epoxy particles in the blends compatibilized with MAH‐g‐PP were more efficient nucleating agents for PP than they were in the blends compatibilized with MAH‐g‐POE. WAXD analysis shows that compatibilization do not disturb the crystalline structure of PP in the blends. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2012     

Improvement of the physico‐mechanical properties and stability of waste polypropylene in the presence of wood flour and (maleic anhydride)‐grafted polypropylene

This paper deals with (maleic anhydride)‐grafted polypropylene (MAH‐g‐PP) and wood flour reinforcement and their effects on the dynamic, mechanical, morphological, and rheological properties of waste polypropylene (PP) composites. MAH‐g‐PP was used as a compatibilizer to improve the physical interaction between the filler and matrix. The composites were prepared by using a twin‐screw extruder followed by injection molding. Thermal stability and mechanical properties of the compatibilized system increased as compared to their values for the uncompatibilized system. Also, nearly 60% and 30% loss was found for mechanical properties and weight loss, respectively, in a biodegradability study. J. VINYL ADDIT. TECHNOL., 20:24–30, 2014. © 2014 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Study of dynamically cured PP/MAH‐g‐PP/talc/epoxy composites

In the present study, an epoxy resin was dynamically cured in a polypropylene (PP)/maleic anhydride–grafted PP (MAH‐g‐PP)/talc matrix to prepare dynamically cured PP/MAH‐g‐PP/talc/epoxy composites. An increase in the torque at equilibrium showed that epoxy resin in the PP/MAH‐g‐PP/talc composites had been cured by 2‐ethylene‐4‐methane‐imidazole. Scanning electron microscopy analysis showed that MAH‐g‐PP and an epoxy resin had effectively increased the interaction adhesion between PP and the talc in the PP/talc composites. Dynamic curing of the epoxy resin further increased the interaction adhesion. The dynamically cured PP/MAH‐g‐PP/talc/epoxy composites had higher crystallization peaks than did the PP/talc composites. Thermogravimetric analysis showed that the addition of MAH‐g‐PP and the epoxy resin into the PP/talc composites caused an obvious improvement in the thermal stability. The dynamically cured PP/MAH‐g‐PP/talc/epoxy composites had the best thermal stability of all the PP/talc composites. The PP/MAH‐g‐PP/talc/epoxy composites had better mechanical properties than did the PP/MAH‐g‐PP/talc composites, and the dynamically cured PP/MAH‐g‐PP/talc/epoxy composites had the best mechanical properties of all the PP/talc composites, which can be attributed to the better interaction adhesion between the PP and the talc. The suitable content of epoxy resin in the composites was about 5 wt %. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2006     

Structure and properties of polypropylene/hydrotalcite nanocomposites

This article presents the study of the modification of the particle/matrix interface region and its effects on the structure and dynamic mechanical behavior of polypropylene (PP)/hydrotalcite nanocomposites prepared by melt extrusion. The interface modification was promoted by combinying the organophillization of the hydrotalcite particles with blending the PP with a maleic anhydride‐grafted‐PP (PP‐g‐MAH) or a maleic anhydride‐grafted‐poly(styrene‐co‐ethylenebutylene‐co‐styrene) (SEBS‐g‐MAH). Sodium dodecyl sulphate was used to promote the organophillization of the hydrotalcite particles. X‐ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed a partially exfoliated hydrotalcite structure, with an increasing exfoliation being achieved by adding a compatibilizer and organo‐modifying the particles. Values of the Young's modulus (E), storage modulus (E′), maximum tensile strength (σ_max), neck propagation strength (σ_neck), and elongation at break (ε_b) were found to depend both on the nature of the particle matrix interface as well as on the type of compatibilizer. Also, nanocomposites prepared with the organophillized particles showed lower T_g and loss factor values. POLYM. COMPOS., 2010. © 2009 Society of Plastics Engineers     

Crystallization kinetics of polypropylene composites filled with nano calcium carbonate modified with maleic anhydride

The subject of this study was the crystallization behavior and thermal properties of polypropylene (PP)/maleic anhydride (MAH) modified nano calcium carbonate (nano‐CaCO₃) composites. In this study, 5 wt % nano‐CaCO₃ modified with different contents of MAH was filled into a PP matrix. X‐ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry were used to characterize the crystal morphology and crystallization kinetics of a series of composites. The results demonstrate that the nano‐CaCO₃ modified with MAH had an important effect on the thermal and morphological properties of the nanocomposites. The Avrami exponent of the pure PP was an integer, but those of the composites were not integers, but the crystallization rate constant decreased as the content of MAH in the nano‐CaCO₃ filler increased in isothermal crystallization. In nonisothermal crystallization, the kinetic parameter F(T) and the degree of crystallinity of pure PP were compared with those of the PP composites filled with nano‐CaCO₃. We suggest that heterogeneous nucleation existed in the PP composites and that the transformation and retention of the β‐form crystal into the α‐form crystal took place in the composite system and the β‐form crystal had a higher nucleation rate and growth process than the α‐form crystal in the PP composites. © 2010 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2011     

Isotactic polypropylene toughened with poly(acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene): Compatibilizing role of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene

The β‐nucleating activity and toughening effect of acrylonitrile–butadiene–styrene (ABS) graft copolymer on isotactic polypropylene (iPP) and the compatibilizing role of maleic anhydride grafted polypropylene (PP‐g‐MAH) on the iPP/ABS blends were investigated. The results show that ABS can induce the formation of β‐crystal in iPP, and its β‐nucleating efficiency depends on its concentration and dispersibility. The relative content of β‐crystal form is up to 36.19% with the addition of 2% ABS. The tensile and impact properties of the iPP were dramatically enhanced by introducing ABS. The incorporation of PP‐g‐MAH into the iPP/ABS blends inhibits the formation of β‐crystal. The crystallization peaks of the blends shift toward higher temperature, due to the heterogeneous nucleation effect of PP‐g‐MAH on iPP. The toughness of iPP/ABS blends improved due to favorable interfacial interaction resulting from the compatibilization of PP‐g‐MAH is significantly better than the β‐crystal toughening effect induced by ABS. POLYM. ENG. SCI., 59:E317–E326, 2019. © 2019 Society of Plastics Engineers