Amino Acid and Vitamin Composition of Raw and Cooked Horse Mackerel

Amino acid, vitamin (A, E, B₁, B₂, B₃ and B₆), and proximate composition were determined in raw and cooked horse mackerel. The changes in amino acid, vitamin, and proximate content were found to be significant for all cooking methods (frying, grilling, and steaming). Cooking did in general significantly increase the contents of essential, semi-essential, and other amino acids compared to raw fish species. Amino acid contents of grilled mackerel were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those found in fried and steamed mackerel. The A, E, B₂, and B₆ vitamin content of fried horse mackerel was found to be significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the grilled and steamed samples. The B₁ content of steamed and B₃ content of grilled were found higher than the other cooked samples. Moisture, protein, fat, ash, and carbohydrate contents of cooked fish ranged between 56.52% to 61.34%, 20.79% and 23.93%, 13.44% and 19.61%, 1.70% and 2.47%, and 1.02% and 4.36 %, respectively. Fried fish had intermediate fat values, while grilled and steamed fishes had a comparatively low value.     

Aluminium levels of fish fillets baked and grilled in aluminium foil

During storage and preparation of food, aluminium foil is often used for wrapping heat-sensitive raw food for protection against direct heat, e.g. grilled or baked fish fillets. In this investigation the aluminium contents of grilled and baked fish fillets with and without ingredients wrapped in aluminium foil were determined. The selected fish species were mackerel (Scomber scombrus L.), a fatty species, ocean perch (Sebastes spp.), a medium fatty species, and cod (Gadus morhua) and saithe (Pollachius virens), two lean fish species. The wrapped fillets were baked for approximately 20 min at 200°C in an oven, either without ingredients or, alternatively, with vinegar and sodium chloride added. In another experiment one part of a fillet was grilled over charcoal without ingredients and the other part was grilled with onion rings and mixed spices added. All aluminium concentrations of both baked and grilled fillets wrapped in aluminium foil increased during heating. The increase in aluminium concentration ranged from a factor of 2 (baked saithe fillets without ingredients from 0.10 up to 0.21 mg/kg) to a factor of 68 (grilled mackerel fillets with ingredients from 0.07 up to 5.04 mg/kg). The aluminium contents of grilled fillets were higher than those of baked fillets. Presumably two factors were responsible for the higher aluminium contents in grilled fillets: first the higher temperature of preparation when grilling fillets and second the high aluminium content of mixed spices (63.5 mg Al/kg), which may be taken up in part by the grilled fillets. All results clearly showed that some aluminium migrated from the aluminium foil into the food. The aluminium migration seems to depend on several factors, e.g. the duration and the temperature of heating, the composition and the pH-value of food, the presence of any other substances (such as organic acids and salt) and complexing reactions that result in dissolution of the complexed metal. Considering the present state of knowledge and the suggested provisional tolerable daily intake of 1 mg Al/kg bodyweight per day of the [World Health Organisation, 1989], no risk to health of the consumer would to be expected from eating meals prepared in aluminium foil.     

Reduction of the polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) content of charcoal smoke during grilling by charcoal preparation using high carbonisation and a preheating step

Charcoal-grilling may lead to contamination of food with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) during the grilling process. The objective of this work was to determine the effect of charcoal preparation on 16 USEPA priority PAHs in the smoke produced during the grilling process. Firstly, mangrove charcoal was prepared at carbonisation temperatures of 500, 750 and 1000°C. The charcoal were then preheated by burning at 650°C. This preheating step is usually used to prepare hot charcoal for the grilling process in the food industry. In this study, charcoal was preheated at different burning times at 5, 20 min and 5 h, at which time partial and whole charcoal glowed, and charcoal was completely burnt, respectively. Finally, PAHs in the smoke were collected and determined by GC/MS. The result showed that charcoal prepared at a carbonisation temperature of 500°C had higher levels of PAHs released into the smoke. In contrast, charcoal produced at 750 and 1000°C had lower PAHs released for all burning times. In addition, PAHs released for 5, 20 min and 5 h of burning time were about 19.9, 1.2 and 0.7 µg g^?1 dry charcoal for charcoal produced at 500°C, and about 0.9–1.4, 0.8–1.2 and 0.15–0.3 µg g^?1 dry charcoal for charcoal produced at 750 and 1000°C, respectively. Therefore, this research suggests that food grilled using charcoal carbonised at a high temperature of about 750°C presents a lower risk of PAH contamination. In addition, in the preheating step, whole charcoal should fully glow in order to reduce the PAH content in charcoal before grilling.     

Determination of 3-MCPD in grilled meat using pressurized liquid extraction and gas chromatography–high resolution mass spectrometry

An analytical method for the determination of free 3-monochloropropane-1,2-diol (3-MCPD) in grilled meat using pressurized liquid extraction, derivatisation using phenylboronic acid, and gas chromatography/high resolution mass spectrometry was developed. The limit of quantification was 1???g/kg. Using this method, the contents of 3-MCPD in grilled steaks (collar) were analysed for different grilling conditions. Charcoal, an electric grill, and a gas grill were used for grilling collars. Further parameters investigated were the pre-treatment of meat (untreated, salted, marinated with oil or emulsion marinade), the use of aluminium grill trays, and a lid. For grilled steaks, contents of 3-MCPD in the range of <1 to 365???g/kg (median 16???g/kg) were detected. The highest contamination was found for a steak pre-treated with an oily marinade grilled on a charcoal grill with a closed lid. Consuming such a steak will exhaust the tolerable daily intake of 2???g/kg body weight for 3-MCPD to about 26?%.     

Effects of varying degrees of doneness on the formation of Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines in chicken and beef satay

The study was carried out to determine the effect of cooking method on Heterocyclic Aromatic Amines (HAs) concentration in grilled chicken and beef (satay). Six common HAs were investigated: 2-amino-3-methylimidazo[4,5-f]quinolone (IQ), 2amino 3,4dimethylimidazo [4,5f]quinoline (MeIQ), 2-amino-3,8-dimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (MeIQx), 2-amino-3,4,8 trimethylimidazo[4,5-f]quinoxaline (4,8-DiMeIQx), 2-amino-3,7,8trimethylimidazo [4,5-f]quinoxaline (7,8-DiMeIQx), and 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-b]pyridine (PhIP). Chicken and beef satay samples were grilled to medium and well done level of doneness. Charcoal grilled (treatment A), microwave pre-treatment prior to grilling (treatment B), and microwave-deep fried (treatment C) were applied to beef and chicken satay samples. The satay samples which were microwaved prior to grilling (B) showed significantly (p < 0.05) lower HAs concentration as compared to those charcoal grilled (A). Both medium and well done cooked beef and chicken satay samples that were microwaved and deep fried (C) as an alternative method to grilling were proven to produce significantly lesser HAs as compared to charcoal-grilled (A) and microwaved prior to grilling (B).     

Effect of cooking methods on the formation of heterocyclic aromatic amines in chicken and duck breast

Heterocyclic aromatic amines (HAAs), potent mutagens/carcinogens, are pyrolysis formed during the cooking of meat and fish. In the present study, the effects of various cooking methods, pan-frying, deep-frying, charcoal grilling and roasting on the formation of HAAs in chicken breast and duck breast were studied. The various HAAs formed during cooking were isolated by solid-phase extraction and analyzed by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Results showed that chicken breast cooked by charcoal grilling contained the highest content of total HAAs, as high as 112 ng/g, followed by pan-fried duck breast (53.3 ng/g), charcoal grilled duck breast (32 ng/g), pan-fried chicken breast (27.4 ng/g), deep-fried chicken breast (21.3 ng/g), deep-fried duck breast (14 ng/g), roasted duck breast (7 ng/g) and roasted chicken breast (4 ng/g). For individual HAA, the most abundant HAA was 9H-pyrido-[4,3-b]indole (Norharman), which was detected in charcoal grilled chicken breast at content as high as 32.2 ng/g, followed by 1-methyl-9H-pyrido[4,3-b] indole (Harman) and 2-amino-1-methyl-6-phenylimidazo[4,5-f]pyridine(PhIP) at 32 and 31.1 ng/g in charcoal grilled chicken breast, respectively. The content of PhIP in pan-fried duck and chicken breast were 22 and 18.3 ng/g, respectively. Generally, the type and content of HAAs in cooked poultry meat varies with cooking method and cooking conditions.     

Effect of chloride on the formation of 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol fatty acid diesters and glycidol fatty acid esters in fish,meats and acylglycerols during heating

The effects of the presence of chloride on the formation of 3-monochloro-1,2-propanediol fatty acid esters (3-MCPDEs) and glycidol fatty acid esters (GEs) in saltwater fish, meats and acylglycerols (diacylglycerol and triacylglycerol) during heating were investigated in this study. Five saltwater fish species (salmon, saury, yellowtail, mackerel and Spanish mackerel) were grilled with a fish griller. 3-MCPDEs and GEs were detected in all of the grilled fish samples. The total amount of GEs was higher than 3-MCPDEs. Beef and pork patties with or without sodium chloride (1.5%) were cooked using gaseous fuel. The formation of 3-MCPDEs was significantly increased by the addition of sodium chloride to the meat patties, whereas the concentration of GEs in the cooked meat patties was not changed by the content of sodium chloride. Hexadecane solutions of diacylglycerol or triacylglycerol containing FeCl₃ were heated at 240°C. The formation of 3-MCPDEs was greatly increased by adding FeCl₃ to the solutions of triacylglycerol. The amounts of 3-MCPDEs decreased with the extension of the heating time. From these results, it is suggested that 3-MCPDEs and GEs are formed in saltwater fish and meats by cooking, and that the formation of 3-MCPDEs was affected by chloride in foodstuffs.     

The effect of cooking methods on mineral and vitamin contents of African catfish

Proximate composition, mineral and vitamin contents (A, E, B₁, B₂, niacin and B₆) were investigated in cooked African catfish. Different cooking treatments were used (baking, grilling, microwaving and frying). The protein and ash contents increased in all cooked fish. The fat content increased only in fried fillets. The moisture content of cooked fish decreased. Mineral levels were affected by cooking methods, except for Cu Although the vitamin A content significantly increased in grilled and fried fish, vitamin E increased in all cooked fish. Vitamin B₁ content of cooked fish significantly decreased. Vitamin B₂ and niacin contents of grilled fish increased significantly. B₆ content of cooked fish significantly decreased but this did not occur for the grilled fish. High levels of vitamin and mineral contents were found in grilled catfish.     

Capability of the rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) extract on the oxidative stability of cooked sea bream (Sparus aurata) during frozen storage

The effects of rosemary extract addition on oxidative stability of cooked sea bream during frozen storage period were investigated. Sea bream fillets were fried, oven baked and grilled. Three groups with rosemary extract were also cooked by the same methods and cooked samples (with and without rosemary extract) were stored in ?18?°C for 4?months. After cooking procedures, the FFA formation was quite similar in fresh-raw and fried sea bream fillets, but significantly increased oven baked (0.31?C0.33% oleic acid) and grilled fillets (0.39?C0.40% oleic acid). The highest value of PV was also obtained from grilled fillets (1.18?C1.58?meq/kg). However, TBA values (1.92?mg MA/kg for fresh-raw fillet) did not increase in sea bream fillets after the frying and grilling procedure except oven baking without rosemary extract (2.41?mg MA/kg). A considerable increase in the FFA, PV and TBA was observed in all cooked groups during frozen storage period. The treated samples with rosemary extract generally showed slower PV and TBA formation than those of the untreated samples. However, the additions of rosemary extract have positive effect on sensory quality of baked sea bream.     

Influence of selected quality factors of beef on the profile and the quantity of heterocyclic aromatic amines during processing at high temperature

New factors were identified impacting significantly on the formation of HAA during grilling. The number and profile of HAA in grilled beef depend on the fattening system (intensive and semi-intensive), and the effect of the animal’s sex. The fewest HAAs were formed in rib steak from heifers from a semi-intensive fattening system. A significant effect of storage of meat in refrigerated conditions (5 to 15 days) was also demonstrated on the formation of HAA during grilling. The longer the raw meat was stored, the more HAA was formed during grilling. The quantity of HAA was strongly correlated with the content of free amino acids and a very strong correlation was found with an increasing content of free purine and pyrimidine bases and their nucleosides.     

Capability of the rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis) extract on the oxidative stability of cooked sea bream (Sparus aurata) during frozen storage

The effects of rosemary extract addition on oxidative stability of cooked sea bream during frozen storage period were investigated. Sea bream fillets were fried, oven baked and grilled. Three groups with rosemary extract were also cooked by the same methods and cooked samples (with and without rosemary extract) were stored in −18 °C for 4 months. After cooking procedures, the FFA formation was quite similar in fresh-raw and fried sea bream fillets, but significantly increased oven baked (0.31–0.33% oleic acid) and grilled fillets (0.39–0.40% oleic acid). The highest value of PV was also obtained from grilled fillets (1.18–1.58 meq/kg). However, TBA values (1.92 mg MA/kg for fresh-raw fillet) did not increase in sea bream fillets after the frying and grilling procedure except oven baking without rosemary extract (2.41 mg MA/kg). A considerable increase in the FFA, PV and TBA was observed in all cooked groups during frozen storage period. The treated samples with rosemary extract generally showed slower PV and TBA formation than those of the untreated samples. However, the additions of rosemary extract have positive effect on sensory quality of baked sea bream.     

Comparative analysis of charcoal grilling,infrared grilling and superheated steam roasting on the colour,textural quality and heterocyclic aromatic amines of lamb patties

The colour, textural profile and heterocyclic aromatic amines content of lamb patties cooked by charcoal grilling, infrared grilling and superheated steam roasting were investigated. The results of colour showed that lightness and yellowness values were highest in the superheated steam and lowest in charcoal grilled patties. The texture characteristics observed in the superheated steam, and infrared patties were much better. Water loss was highest in charcoal grilled meat. Charcoal grilling produced a significantly (P < 0.05) much higher amount of total HAAs, ranging from 171.26 ng g⁻¹ to 555.29 ng g⁻¹ (polar) and from 200.77 ng g⁻¹ to 426.07 ng g⁻¹ (non-polar) HAAs, than infrared (39.21 ng g⁻¹ −181.37 ng g⁻¹⁾ and (52.84 ng g⁻¹ −148.59 ng g⁻¹) and superheated steam roasting (from 8.67 ng g⁻¹ to 30.66 ng g⁻¹ and from 23.61 ng g⁻¹ to 89.66 ng g⁻¹⁾ for both types of HAAs in lamb patties. Colour, texture and HAAs were significantly influenced by time and by the temperature used for each cooking method.     

Determination of volatile nitrosamines in grilled lamb and vegetables using comprehensive gas chromatography – Nitrogen chemiluminescence detection

The grilling of meat may generate dangerous levels of mutagenic and carcinogenic nitrosamines (NAs). Meat and vegetable samples underwent a two-step solid-phase extraction before analysis by comprehensive gas chromatography with a nitrogen chemiluminescence detection system (GCxGC-NCD). The GCxGC-NCD method showed high selectivity, sensitivity and equimolarity in its response to six specific NAs. NA contamination of charcoal-grilled lamb at various stages of cooking and with various fat contents and also charcoal-grilled vegetables were investigated. The grilling of lamb on unready charcoal resulted in the formation of considerable quantities of NAs. Grilling lamb on properly prepared, ready charcoal resulted in an increase in total concentrations of six NAs from 0 to 4.51 μg kg⁻¹ over a period of 16 min. Increasing the fat content of the grilled lamb from 5% to 20% caused a modest increase in total concentrations of the six investigated NAs from 4.51 to 5.30 μg kg⁻¹.     

Determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in commonly consumed Nigerian smoked/grilled fish and meat

Smoking and/or grilling, when carried out with traditional methods involving direct contact with wood combustion fumes, is responsible for high contamination levels with carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The aim of this work was to investigate the PAH content of different smoked or grilled meat and fish products commonly consumed in Nigeria. A rapid method involving microwave-assisted saponification and simultaneous extraction followed by solid-phase extraction (SPE), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) separation and spectrofluorometric detection was employed. Samples that were smoked or grilled using traditional systems, which use a wood fire, were heavily contaminated with benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) at levels ranging from 2.4 to 31.2 µg kg^?1 wet weight. Considerably lower contamination levels were found in samples smoked or grilled in the laboratory using a charcoal fire (BaP from 0.7 to 2.8 µg kg^?1 wet weight). The health risk associated with a daily consumption of 100 g of these products was also evaluated using the margin of exposure (MOE) approach. MOE values lower than 10,000 were obtained for all smoked/grilled commercial samples, indicating a potential concern for consumer health.     

不同烹调方式对羊肉品质的影响

研究不同烹调方式（蒸煮、烘烤和煎炸）对羊肉品质的影响,分别对样品中氨基酸、脂肪酸和核苷酸的组成及含量、质构指标以及肌肉微观结构进行检测。结果表明：蒸煮方式的损失率最低,对氨基酸、脂肪酸和核苷酸的组成及含量的影响最小;在3 种烹调方式对肉样处理过程中,肉样的氨基酸模式和脂肪酸模式均发生不同程度的变化;煎炸肉样中呈味氨基酸含量为55.33%,显著高于蒸煮肉样呈味氨基酸含量（50.67%）和烘烤肉样呈味氨基酸含量（49.33%）;烘烤肉样呈味核苷酸含量最低;蒸煮、煎炸和烘烤对肉样的脂肪酸组成及含量虽有影响,但组间并无差异显著性。烘烤肉样咀嚼性优于煎炸肉样和蒸煮肉样。在3 种烹调方式处理过程中,烘烤肉样肌纤维束变形、肌束膜破坏、肌间脂肪受损程度最严重。     

Einflüsse von Braten und Grillen auf Fettqualität,Zartheit und Zusammensetzung von Schweinekoteletts aus verschiedenen Markenfleischprogrammen

Differences in fat quality, tenderness and composition of raw, roasted and grilled pork loin chops obtained from different meat brands Three loin chops obtained from each of a total of 180 pigs within one slaughter house either were left raw or were roasted at 120 °C for 12 min or simultaneously grilled on both sides at 180 °C for 6 min, respectively. Four different groups of 45 animals each were employed: pigs of conventional origin, pigs from a meat brand basing on animal welfare principles (Neuland) and pigs from two sub-systems of another commercial meat brand (Pigour) among others using higher contents of medium chain fatty acids in the feed. With the less intensive roasting, lower cooking losses and shear forces were observed as compared to grilling. The final intramuscular fat content was almost twice as high as the initial value of 1.3% with both cooking procedures. In subcutaneous back fat, cooking resulted in a highly significant reduction of the proportion of the polyenic acids which, however, was of only low numerical extent. The induction period till fat oxidation was significantly increased by 25% with roasting and by 8% with grilling. The clear differences in the quality of the raw chops obtained from the different origins could be almost completely recovered in the cooked chops.     

Innovative Cooking Techniques for Improving the Overall Quality of a Kailan-Hybrid Broccoli

The microbial, physical, sensory and nutritional quality of boiled (vacuum and conventional), steamed, pressure cooked, sous vide, microwaved (sous vide and conventional), deep-fried (vacuum and conventional) and grilled kailan-hybrid broccoli (Bimi®) after cooking was studied. Sous vide microwaving greatly decreased microbial counts, achieving very low psychrophilic and enterobacteria counts (1.1 and 0.2 log CFU g^?1, respectively). Vacuum boiling and sous vide reduced the stem broccoli firmness by approximately 54–58 %, reaching a pleasant and moderate softening. Sous vide, grilling and steaming induced the lowest stem colour changes. Generally, all cooking treatments showed a good overall sensory quality. The total phenolic content (1,148 mg CAE kg^?1 fw) usually increased after cooking, with microwave and grilled treatments registering the highest increases up to 2-fold. Commonly, the total antioxidant capacity (296.6 mg AAE kg^?1 fw) increased after cooking by sous vide, microwaving and frying treatments registering the highest increments, by approximately 3.6-fold. Generally, the cooking process reduced the initial vitamin C content, with vacuum and conventional boiling showing the lowest and highest losses with 27 and 62 %, respectively, while vacuum deep frying preserved the initial value (1,737 mg kg^?1 fw). As a main conclusion, the studied grilling and vacuum-based cooking treatments resulted in better microbial quality, colour, stem firmness and sensory quality than the remaining ones. This maintained or even improved the total antioxidant content of the new kailan-hybrid broccoli studied.     

Iodine content of cooked and processed fish in Turkey

This study evaluates the effects of different cooking (grilling, frying and steaming) and processing (smoking, salting, marinating and drying) methods on iodine contents of valuable marine and freshwater fish species commonly consumed in Turkey. The highest mean iodine content of cooked fish was determined to be 3.760 mg kg^?1, 2.788 mg kg^?1, 5.831 mg kg^?1 and 6.161 mg kg^?1 in grilled anchovy, horse mackerel, Atlantic Bonito and whiting, 0.914 mg kg^?1, 1.452 mg kg^?1, 3.106 mg kg^?1 in steamed bluefish, red mullet. The highest mean iodine content of processed fish was determined to be 2.149 mg kg^?1 in smoked mackerel, 0.701 mg kg^?1 in salted Bonito, 1.128 mg kg^?1 in dried horse mackerel and 7.283 mg kg^?1 in marinated anchovy. This iodine values are also above the Upper Tolerable Nutrient Level of 100–150 μg day^?1 iodine.     

Efficacy of Chitosan-Gallic Acid Coating on Shelf Life Extension of Refrigerated Pacific Mackerel Fillets

The synergistic effect of gallic acid (GA) and chitosan (CS) as edible coatings on the quality and shelf life of Pacific mackerel (Pneumatophorus japonicus) fillets during chilled storage was investigated in this study. Pacific mackerel fillets were periodically evaluated to assess their microbiological (total viable count), physicochemical (pH, total volatile basic nitrogen, biogenic amine, thiobarbituric acid, and K value), and sensory characteristics. The results indicated that CS?+?GA was more effective than either treatment alone in inhibiting microbial growth, protein decomposition, biogenic amine formation, lipid oxidation and nucleotide breakdown, and maintaining better sensory characteristics during storage, thereby extending the shelf life of mackerel by 6 days compared with the control group. Therefore, a coating with the combination of chitosan with GA represents a promising method for maintaining the storage quality of Pacific mackerel fillets and has broad potential applications in the seafood industry as a food-grade biopreservative.     

The effects of colorifico on lipid oxidation,colour and vitamin E in raw and grilled chicken patties during frozen storage

Colorifico is a spice consisting essentially of a mixture of annatto (Bixa orellana) and corn flour. The effects of colorifico addition (0.4 g/100 g) to chicken meat on the development of lipid oxidation, colour stability, and degradation of bixin and vitamin E was investigated in raw and grilled patties during storage at −18 °C for 120 days. Colorifico was able to provide a more stable and intense red and yellow colour in both raw and grilled chicken patties when compared to the meat without spice. Lipid oxidation was delayed by colorifico in the grilled patties until 30 days of storage; however, no effect was observed in the raw patties. Vitamin E content was significantly higher in raw meat with colorifico and heat treatment resulted in relatively less loss when compared to the meat without spice; however, during storage both presented the same degradation pattern. Bixin content was stable during storage but not after grilling. The observed antioxidant mechanism suggests that vitamin E, probably the tocotrienols, is acting along with bixin to protect the unsaturated lipids from oxidation.