Optimal design for a dual-airflow window for different climate regions in China

The dual-airflow window could be used to conserve energy and improve indoor air quality in buildings because it works like a heat exchanger and can introduce outdoor air into buildings. In order to optimize the window design, this investigation used the orthogonal method to evaluate the importance of these 13 design parameters of the dual-airflow window in energy conservation: outdoor air supply rate, window cavity width, window width, window height, thermal conductivity, glazing thickness, solar heat gain coefficient, emissivity, thermal conductivity of window frame, window frame width, window orientation, shading coefficient, and window blinds position. The outdoor air supply rate, window height, solar heat gain coefficient, and window orientation were found to be the most important. The first four parameters were further studied by using the listing method to identify their optimal values for the window design. With the optimal design, the dual-airflow window could save 25% energy in a warm climate region such as Guangzhou and 34% in a cold climate region such as Harbin. The dual-airflow window is recommended for use in colder climate regions.     

CFD modelling of naturally ventilated double-skin facades with Venetian blinds

This study describes computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modelling of naturally ventilated double-skin facades (DSFs) with Venetian blinds inside the facade cavity. The 2D modelling work investigates the coupled convective, conductive and radiative heat transfer through the DSF system. The angles of the Venetian blind can be adjusted and a series of angles (0°, 30°, 45°, 60° and 80°) have been modelled. The modelling results are compared with the measurements from a section of a prototype-facade testing facility and with predictions from a component-based nodal model. Agreement between the three methods is generally good. It is thought that discrepancies in the results are caused by the simplification of the CFD model resulting in less turbulence mixing within the facade cavity. The CFD simulation output suggests that the presence of the Venetian blinds is able to enhance the natural ventilation flow within the facade cavity and significantly reduce the heat gains to the internal environment. It was also found that the convective heat transfer coefficients on the glazing surfaces are insensitive to the blind angles. The work demonstrated the capability of CFD for modelling complicated heat transfer processes through the DSF system and offered some guidance for CFD practitioners who wish to model similar type of flow.     

A simplified model of heat transfer at an indoor window glazing surface with a Venetian blind

In this article, a simplified model is developed to predict the radiative and convective heat transfer in a complex fenestration system consisting of a Venetian blind located adjacent to an indoor window glazing. Empirical correlations for natural convection in an asymmetrically heated channel and an isolated flat plate are used in this one-dimensional simplified model. In this simplified model, an energy balance is performed at the blind surface using a mean blind temperature. The radiative heat exchange between the blind, window and room is calculated using a four surface grey-diffuse model, which is coupled to the convective heat transfer. The simplified model has been developed using experimental and numerical data from the literature. Sample results are presented that illustrate the effect of blind slat angle, blind-to-window spacing and absorbed solar heat flux on the heat transfer at the window surface.     

Energy performance assessment of a window with a horizontal Venetian blind

This study examines the effects of the presence of a Venetian blind on the thermal performance of a window. The blind is positioned adjacent to the indoor surface of either a single or double glazed window and the coupled convection and radiation heat transfer problem is solved using a two-dimensional finite volume model. The numerical model is validated with published experimental and numerical results in the literature. The results show that the presence of a Venetian blind significantly improves the energy performance of a single and double glazed window. The blind reduces the overall heat transfer rate through the window by reducing the thermal radiation from the indoor glazing. The improved understanding of the benefits of Venetian blinds may lead to better designs of window/shading systems.     

Description of ParaSol v3.0 and comparison with measurements

ParaSol is a computer program for calculating the solar and thermal properties of windows with sunshades and the energy demands of a room with a window/shading system. The program has three main features. One of them is a calculation of g, T and U for normal incidence of beam irradiation, which is performed as soon as a window or an internal/interpane sunshade is selected. The other two are based on yearly simulations, using DEROB-LTH, a building energy simulation program on which ParaSol is based. One of the applications gives the monthly average of g and T for the window glazing and the glazing/sunshade system. The other application gives the heating and cooling demands for a room with a window, with and without a sunshade, where input data are given for the internal heat, ventilation settings, shading control and temperature set-points. Version 3.0 of ParaSol, which has some new and improved models, is described in this paper. The g-values obtained with this program version are compared with measurements on windows with internal/interpane screens/venetian blinds. The absolute deviation is less than 0.03 for the venetian blinds. The measured values of dark internal screens with closed air gaps exceed those simulated by Parasol, but are lower than the ones simulated with open air gaps.     

Heat transfer modelling on windows and glazing under the exposure of solar radiation

Due to the effect of solar radiation on windows and glazing system the evaluation of heat flow is of primary importance in modeling the thermal performance within building interiors to account thermal comfort and overall energy consumption of a building. In this context the optical properties of window glazing are measured to determine the percentage absorption of incident solar radiation. An experimental study was performed in a room to measure the glazing surface temperature due to the global radiation on it. The corresponding window plane global radiation and horizontal global radiation were measured outside for simulation. Mathematical models have been developed to simulate the window plane solar radiation and corresponding glazing surface temperature aiming at validating the measured values. The thermal model is concerned with laminar heat transfer for natural and forced convection process according to the ambient conditions. The estimated errors between experimental and simulated values of window plane radiation and glazing temperature are shown to be within ±5%. Using the developed thermal model the heat flow inside the room through windows is determined. Thus overall heat transfer coefficient of glazing (U-factor) and the Solar Heat Gain (SHG) of building interior have been predicted from the simulation.     

A computational method for calculating heat transfer and airflow through a dual-airflow window

An airflow window has great potential for conserving energy and improving indoor air quality in residential buildings. Existing airflow windows use a single airflow path, and their energy performance can be studied using several computational models. A dual-airflow window with triple glazing can conserve more energy than a single-airflow window, because the former works like a cross-counterflow heat exchanger. However, no suitable computer programs can be used to evaluate the energy performance of the dual-airflow window. This paper proposes a four-step computational method that uses both computational fluid dynamics (CFD) and coded radiation calculations to determine airflow and heat transfer through the window. Experimental tests on a full-scale dual-airflow window system were used to obtain various indoor and outdoor air and window surface temperatures for validating the computer method. The agreement between the computed and measured temperatures is very good.     

Experimental study of free convection in a window with a heated between-panes blind

An experimental study has been conducted to examine free convection in a window with an enclosed aluminum venetian-type blind. The unique feature of this experiment was that the blind slats were heated electrically to simulate absorbed solar radiation. Convective heat transfer measurements and temperature field visualization were obtained using a Mach-Zehnder laser interferometer. Optical measurements were made for two glazing spacings, two blind slat angles, two blind heat flux levels, and two glazing temperature differences. Both local and average convective heat flux data were obtained in the center region of the tall air-filled enclosure. At the widest glazing spacing, the temperature field was found to be unsteady. For these cases, the temporal fluctuation of the local convective heat transfer was time-averaged using a high speed camera. The experimental results have been compared to a simplified method in the literature for predicting the center-glass heat flux for this configuration.     

Experimental investigation of the influence of the air jet trajectory on convective heat transfer in buildings equipped with air-based and radiant cooling systems

The complexity and diversity of airflow in buildings make the accurate definition of convective heat transfer coefficients (CHTCs) difficult. In a full-scale test facility, the convective heat transfer of two cooling systems (active chilled beam and radiant wall) has been investigated under steady-state and dynamic conditions. With the air-based cooling system, a dependency of the convective heat transfer on the air jet trajectory has been observed. New correlations have been developed, introducing a modified Archimedes number to account for the air flow pattern. The accuracy of the new correlations has been evaluated to±15%. Besides the study with an air-based cooling system, the convective heat transfer with a radiant cooling system has also been investigated. The convective flow at the activated surface is mainly driven by natural convection. For other surfaces, the complexity of the flow and the large uncertainty on the CHTCs make the validation of existing correlations difficult.     

Analysis of coupled natural convection–conduction effects on the heat transport through hollow building blocks

In the present study, the coupled convective and conduction heat transport mode in a common hollow building brick is studied. Heat transfer rate through building bricks is examined in order to asses the suitable brick insulation configuration. Three different configurations for building bricks are considered. The first is a typical brick of three identical hollow cells (air cavities), the second is obtained by filling these cells with ordinary polystyrene bars and the third is obtained by using hollow polystyrene bars. The geometry of the first and third configurations considered in this study is simply a solid closed frame surrounding square cavities filled with air. The second configuration is a solid composite slab. Solving Navier–Stocks equations assuming Boussinesq approximation, using the commercial Fluent software, showed that the cellular air motion inside blocks’ cavities contributes significantly to the heat loads. Insertion of polystyrene bars reduced the heat rate by a maximum of 36%. Using a hollow polystyrene bars reduces the heat rate by 6% only due to the air motion inside cells. In order to estimate the heat rate during a day, the air temperature and solar insolation data of a typical summer day for the city of Jeddah, Saudi Arab, are used. A quazi-steady state approach is implemented to estimate an equivalent facade surface temperature, which is then used as boundary for solving the simulation model. Such an approach showed that the effective overall daily heat rate reduction using polystyrene filled bricks to be 25%.     

Improvement of thermal performance through window surface with interior blind by analyzing detailed heat transfer

Generally, the cooling loads of buildings with interior blinds are greater than those of buildings with exterior blinds. This is caused by convective and infrared heat gain from the blind and the air gap between the blind and the window’s inner surface. The aim of this study is to determine the optimum thermal properties of an interior blind that can generate the minimum window heat gain. Therefore, we analyzed the detailed window heat gain with several variables of window blinds. In addition, we found the best performance case in terms of the combination of the solar reflectance and the infrared emissivity that has the minimum window heat gain according to the different slat angles. We used the EnergyPlus software V.8.1 verified according to the ANSI/ASHRAE standard 140-2011 to analyze the detailed window heat gain. The results of this study informed the following conclusions. Increasing the solar reflectance of both sides of the blind slat is advantageous to reduce the window heat gain with the interior blind, regardless of the blind slat angle. Moreover, increasing the infrared emissivity of both sides of the blind slat is the best way to reduce the window heat gain in the case of the blind slat angle of 0°. However, in other cases, the best way to reduce the window heat gain is to increase the infrared emissivity of the front side of the blind slat and decrease the infrared emissivity of the back side of the blind slat.     

Convection at the indoor side of complex fenestration systems: the ASHWAT model revisited

This paper examines the three-temperature problem of convection at the indoor side of a complex fenestration system (CFS) based on recent theoretical developments, namely the extended Newton formulation and the dQdT technique. CFD solutions were obtained for natural convection at the indoor side of various CFS configurations. The dQdT technique was then implemented numerically to obtain the paired heat transfer coefficients of each configuration. The results were used to assess the approximate relations used in the ASHRAE Window ATachment (ASHWAT) tool. The comparison shows that while there is remarkable agreement between the ASHWAT estimates and dQdT results for roller blinds, discrepancies exist between results for venetian blinds. Furthermore, although use of a delta resistor network to model convection at the indoor side is valid and relatively accurate for roller blinds, the application of this model to CFSs with venetian blinds requires additional levels of approximation. Nevertheless, the heat transfer rates calculated based on the approximate resistor-network model are in close agreement with the CFD results.     

Thermal convection in double glazed windows with structured gap

Convective heat transfer inside the gap of double glazed windows is studied numerically using a commercial CFD code (Fluent v6.3), for different Rayleigh numbers and aspect ratios. A reference window with empty gap is compared with windows where the gap contains fins arranged in such a way as to reduce heat transfer. The effects of convective air flow inside the cavities were estimated both at the onset of convection and at steady-state in real environmental conditions. The global Nusselt numbers were calculated for different configurations of the fins in the window gap, in order to apply the standard heat loss estimation method to this type of windows.     

Conjugate conduction convection and radiation heat transfer through hollow autoclaved aerated concrete blocks

A computational fluid dynamics (CFD) model is developed to study thermal performance of hollow autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) blocks in wall constructions of buildings under hot summer conditions. The goal is to determine size and distribution of cavities (within building blocks) that reduce heat flow through the walls and thereby lead to energy savings in air conditioning. The model couples conjugate, laminar natural convective flow of a viscous fluid (air) in the cavities with long-wave radiation between the cavity sides. Realistic boundary conditions were employed at the outdoor and indoor surfaces of the block. A state-of-the-art building energy simulation programme was used to determine the outdoor thermal environment that included solar radiation, equivalent temperature of the surroundings, and convective heat transfer coefficient. The CFD problem is put into dimensionless formulation and solved numerically by means of the control-volume approach. The study yielded comprehensive, detailed quantitative estimates of temperature, stream function and heat flux throughout the AAC block domain. The results show a complex dependence of heat flux through the blocks on cavity and block sizes. In general, introducing large cavities in AAC blocks, being a construction material of low thermal conductivity, leads to greater heat transfer than the corresponding solid blocks. Several small cavities in a block may lead to small reductions in heat flux, but the best configuration found is a large cavity with a fine divider mesh in which case heat flux reductions of 50% are achievable.     

Development of new and validation of existing convection correlations for rooms with displacement ventilation systems

Building airflow, thermal, and contaminant simulation programs need accurate models for the surface convective boundary conditions. This is, especially, the case for displacement ventilation (DV) systems, where convective buoyancy forces at room surfaces significantly affect the airflow pattern and temperature and contaminant distributions. Nevertheless, for DV, as a relatively new ventilation system, the convective correlations are adopted from more traditional mixing ventilation correlations, or non-existent. In this study, the existing recommended correlations are validated in a full-scale experimental facility representing an office space. In addition, new correlations are developed for floor surfaces because the current literature does not provide necessary correlations, even though, the floor surface is responsible for >50% of the total convective heat transfer at the envelope. The convective correlations are typically functions of a surface-air temperature difference, airflow parameters, and characteristic room dimensions. Validation results show that the floor convection correlations expressed as a function of volume flow rate are much stronger than the correlations expressed as a function of a temperature difference between the surface and local air. Consequently, the new convection correlation for floor surfaces is a function of the number of hourly room air changes (ACH). This correlation also takes into account buoyant effects from local floor heat patches. Experimental data show that the existing correlation can be successfully applied to vertical and ceiling surfaces in spaces with DV diffuser(s). Overall, the new and the existing convection correlations are tabulated for use in building simulation programs, such as annual energy analyses or computational fluid dynamics.     

Natural convection at an indoor glazing surface

An experimental study was made to determine correlations that allow the calculation of heat transferred by convection through the window. Three configurations were studied: a hot plate; a cold plate and a window with a single-step frame placed on the wall of a room. We obtained a correlation that can be used to calculate the convection heat transfer through the window. The new correlation in the hot plate configuration differs by 14.5% from the ASHRAE correlation for laminar free convection on a vertical surface, is 27.5% from the cold plate and is 12% from the single step-frame.     

Thermal behavior of a novel type see-through glazing system with integrated PV cells

Steady natural convective airflow in a novel type glazing system with integrated semi-transparent photovoltaic (PV) cells has been analyzed numerically using a stream function vorticity formulation. Based on the resulting numerical predictions, the effects of Rayleigh numbers on airflow patterns and local heat transfer coefficients on vertical glazing surfaces were investigated for Rayleigh numbers in the range of 10³ ≤ Ra ≤ 2 × 10⁵. Significant agreement for the Nusselt numbers was observed between numerical simulation results in this study and those of earlier experimental and theoretical results available from the literature. In addition, the effect of air gap thickness in the cavity on the heat transfer through the cavity is evaluated. The optimum thickness of the air layer in this research is found to be in the range of 60–80 mm. This novel glazing system type could not only generate electricity but also achieve potential energy savings by reducing the air conditioning cooling load when applied in subtropical climatic conditions and simultaneously provide visual comfort in the indoor environment.     

双层窗的复合传热过程研究

应用不可逆热力学分析双层窗的复合传热过程,得出：在不考虑日射得热的条件下,自然对流换热及其对辐射换热的耦合传热是传热过程的主要因素,说明降低窗间气体的自然对流将是提高外窗的绝热性能的主要方向之一     

Thermo-physical behaviour and energy performance assessment of PCM glazing system configurations: A numerical analysis

The adoption of Phase Change Materials (PCMs) in glazing systems was proposed to increase the heat capacity of the fenestration, being some PCMs partially transparent to visible radiation.The aim of the PCM glazing concept was to let (part) of the visible spectrum of the solar radiation enter the indoor environment, providing daylighting, while absorbing (the largest part of) the infrared radiation.In this paper, the influence of the PCM glazing configuration is investigated by means of numerical simulations carried out with a validated numerical model. Various triple glazing configurations, where one of the two cavities is filled with a PCM, are simulated, and PCM melting temperatures are investigated. The investigation is carried out in a humid subtropical climate (Cfa according to Köppen climate classifi-cation), and “typical days” for each season are used.The results show that the position of the PCM layer (inside the outer or the inner cavity) has a relevant influence on the thermo-physical behaviour of the PCM glazing system. PCM glazing systems (especially those with the PCM layer inside the outermost cavity) can be beneficial in terms of thermal comfort. The assessment of the energy performance and efficiency is instead more complex and sometimes controversial. All the configurations are able to reduce the solar gain during the daytime, but sometimes the behaviour of the PCM glazing is less efficient than the reference one.