住区密度与家庭能耗碳排放相关性研究——以上海曹杨新村为例

住区空间形态及模式类型划分与密度特征相关,家庭能耗产生的空间碳排放与密度分布有着逻辑对应关系。国内外相关研究表明,家庭特征、住房特征和能耗行为等因素对家庭生活能耗有着显著的影响,而有关密度与家庭能耗碳排放之间的相关研究尚需更多实证案例。本文以上海曹杨新村作为研究对象,通过调研问卷数据来估算54个小区样本的家庭能耗人均碳排放值,并对住区密度指标与碳排放进行相关性研究。从回归分析结果看,曹杨新村的家庭能耗消费与家庭特征、住房特征等因素存在着显著的线性关系,且家庭人口规模具有主导作用。在密度指标与碳排放相关性研究中,家庭能耗碳排放在物质密度与人口密度指标中分别具有区段波动性特征,通过进一步分析密度与碳排放影响变量之间的非线性逻辑对应关系,研究得出不同密度区段条件下的住区家庭能耗碳排放差异是居民家庭人口规模、收入水平等相关社会因素叠合作用造成的。因此,判断住区是否"低碳"首先当明确密度区段的选择条件,结合本国国情、地区发展条件、家庭社会经济特征等因素来引导未来住区发展模式。     

A high spatial resolution residential energy model based on American Time Use Survey data and the bootstrap sampling method

A high spatial resolution model of energy use in residential buildings was developed based on time use data. The development of this model was guided by a theoretical framework that explains the nature of a dwelling's physical characteristics, the nature of its occupants’ energy use behaviors and the ways in which the dwelling and its occupants interact to determine the energy use of a household. Energy Plus was used as the model platform.In the model, the occupants’ domestic activity pattern was extracted from American Time Use Survey (ATUS) data via bootstrap sampling. The dwelling's physical characteristics were based on real world scenarios.Virtual experiments with 3- to 5-occupant household compositions were conducted to examine the model properties. Simulation results show that (1) bell-shaped distributions were present in annual heating load demands for all household compositions, (2) the load demands for different batches of samples of the same household composition demonstrated a narrow range of variations, and (3) the simulated hourly appliance and lighting load profiles were in agreement with those generated from field-metered data at both whole-house and sub-house levels. These results indicate the model's overall robustness and verify its ability to simulate realistic residential energy use load profiles.     

Residential mobility in private lower‐cost housing in Bangkok

The literature on residential satisfaction and mobility for Western countries is extensive and has yielded a number of models explaining mobility in the housing market. By studying a large number of residents of private lower‐cost housing estates in Bangkok (Thailand) a model is built explaining residential mobility in low‐income countries. The strongest predictor of mobility is home ownership followed by residential satisfaction itself. This contradicts earlier results in developed countries. Satisfaction with the individual dwelling unit, satisfaction with the environment of the estate and the age of the head of household also, with decreasing strength, influence plans to move.     

Electricity savings from implementation of minimum energy efficiency standard for TVs in Malaysia

The popularization of 24 h pay-TV, interactive video games, web-TV, VCD and DVD in Malaysia are poised to have a large impact on overall TV electricity consumption in the country. With the increasing of overall TV energy consumption, energy efficiency standards are one of highly effective policies for decreasing electricity consumption in the residential sector. Energy efficiency standards are also capable of reducing consumer's electricity bill and contribute towards positive environmental impacts. This paper attempts to predict the amount of energy that can be saved in the residential sector by implementing minimum energy efficiency standard for television sets in Malaysia. Over the past 30 years, television ownership in Malaysian residents has increased from 186,036 units in 1970 to 2,741,640 units in 1991. This figure is expected to reach 6,201,316 units in the year 2010. Hence, efficiency improvement for this appliance will have a significant impact on the future of electricity consumption in this country.     

Exploring Dual Housing Tenure Status as a Household Response to Demographic,Social and Economic Change

This article proposes that single housing tenure categories do not enable an understanding of the ways in which households use, occupy and own residential properties in the context of broad demographic, economic and social changes. Adapting work on sub-tenure housing choice, housing tenure is overlaid with ownership of residential property to develop four tenure types: Owner, Owner-Owner, Renter and Renter-Owner. Applying this typology in the Australian case provides valuable new insights, with 1.5 million households having dual housing tenure status, including almost one in eight private renters. More broadly, reconceptualising housing tenure to include ownership of other residential property can contribute to theoretical debates about household income and wealth; social status and identity; and social practices and life planning, potentially generating new research questions such as the extent to which Renter-Owners reflect new patterns of living or a response to affordability constraints, and the social identity and political affiliations of those with a dual tenure status.     

Occupant related household energy consumption in Canada: Estimation using a bottom-up neural-network technique

A national model of residential energy consumption requires consideration of the following end-uses: space heating, space cooling, appliances and lighting (AL), and domestic hot water (DHW). The space heating and space cooling end-use energy consumption is strongly affected by the climatic conditions and the house thermal envelope. In contrast, both AL and DHW energy consumption are primarily a function of occupant behaviour, appliance ownership, demographic conditions, and occupancy rate. Because of these characteristics, a bottom-up statistical model is a candidate for estimating AL and DHW energy consumption. This article presents the detailed methodology and results of the application of a previously developed set of neural network models, as the statistical method of the Canadian Hybrid Residential End-Use Energy and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Model (CHREM). The CHREM estimates the national AL and DHW secondary energy consumption of Canadian single-detached and double/row houses to be 248 PJ and 201 PJ, respectively. The energy consumption values translate to per household values of 27.8 GJ and 22.5 GJ, and per capita values of 9.0 GJ and 7.3 GJ, respectively.     

Heating energy consumption and resulting environmental impact of European apartment buildings

Buildings have direct environmental impacts, ranging from the use of raw materials for their construction and renovation to the consumption of natural resources, like water and fossil fuels, and the emission of harmful substances. Data on heating energy consumption were collected during the audits of 193 European residential buildings in five countries. The available data were analysed in order to assess the influence of envelope thermal insulation, age and condition of heating system, on the heating energy consumption and the resulting environmental impact. About 38% of the audited buildings have an annual heating energy consumption more than the European average (174.3 kWh/m²), about 30% of the buildings have higher airborne emissions than the European averages and 23% of the buildings have higher solid waste emissions than the European averages. Polish buildings have the highest average heating energy consumption (63% of the buildings above the European average). French and Polish buildings have the highest production of airborne emissions, while Polish buildings have the highest emissions of solid wastes.     

Saturation, energy consumption, CO2 emission and energy efficiency from urban and rural households appliances in Mexico

Energy usage and energy efficiency are of increasing concern in Mexico, electricity generation principally depends upon fossil fuels. On one hand, the stocks of these fuels have been confirmed to be critically limited. On the other hand, in process of electricity generation by means of these fuels, a number of poisonous by-products adversely affect the conservation of natural eco-system.This paper focuses on estimation of energy consumption, energy savings, reduction of emissions of CO₂ for use of urban and rural household appliances in Mexico between 1996 and 2021.The analysis concentrates on six major energy end uses in the residential sector: refrigerators, air conditioners, washing machines, TV set, iron and heater.It is estimated that by 2021 there will be a cumulative saving of 22,605 GWh, as a result of the implementation of government programs on energy efficiency that represents a cumulative reduction of CO2 emissions of 15,087 Tg CO2.It means that Mexico can reduce in 5650 MW the generation capacity of national electricity system, which is to avoid burning 40.35 MM barrels of oil.The findings can be useful to policy makers as well as household appliances users.     

Economic and environmental evaluation of micro CHP systems with different operating modes for residential buildings in Japan

The growing worldwide demand for less polluting forms of energy has led to a renewed interest in the use of micro combined heat and power (CHP) technologies in the residential sector. The operation of micro CHP system results in simultaneous production of heat and power in a single household based on small energy conversion units. The heat produced may be used for space and water heating and possibly for cooling load if combined with an absorption chiller, the electricity is used within the house.In this paper, two typical micro CHP alternatives, namely, gas engine and fuel cell for residential buildings, are analyzed. For each facility, two different operating modes including minimum-cost operation and minimum-emission operation are taken into consideration by employing a plan and evaluation model for residential micro CHP systems. The analysis results show that the fuel cell system is recognized as a better option for the examined residential building from both economic and environmental points of view. With the operation considering optimal economic benefits, annual energy cost is reduced by about 26%. On the other hand, while maximizing the environmental merits, annual CO₂ emissions are reduced by about 9%.     

既有居住建筑围护结构改造效果分析

以唐山市一既有居住建筑节能改造工程为例,分析了北方寒冷地区既有居住建筑节能改造效果.通过采集改造前后两个供暖季建筑的供热量,与住户室内逐时温度,进行对比分析.利用能耗模拟软件DeST-h对建筑改造前后的能耗进行模拟分析,结果表明:外围护结构进行保温改造对于既有居住建筑具有直接的节能效果,并能提高住户室内的舒适性.     

European residential buildings and empirical assessment of the Hellenic building stock,energy consumption,emissions and potential energy savings

The existing building stock in European countries accounts for over 40% of final energy consumption in the European Union (EU) member states, of which residential use represents 63% of total energy consumption in the buildings sector. Consequently, an increase of building energy performance can constitute an important instrument in the efforts to alleviate the EU energy import dependency (currently at about 48%) and comply with the Kyoto Protocol to reduce carbon dioxide emissions. This is also in accordance to the European Directive (EPBD 2002/91/EC) on the energy performance of buildings, which is currently under consideration in all EU member states. This paper presents an overview of the EU residential building stock and focuses on the Hellenic buildings. It elaborates the methodology used to determine the priorities for energy conservation measures (ECMs) in Hellenic residential buildings to reduce the environmental impact from CO₂ emissions, through the implementation of a realistic and effective national action plan. A major obstacle that had to overcome was the need to make suitable assumptions for missing detailed primary data. Accordingly, a qualitative and quantitative assessment of scattered national data resulted to a realistic assessment of the existing residential building stock and energy consumption. This is the first time that this kind of aggregate data is presented on a national level. Different energy conservation scenarios and their impact on the reduction of CO₂ emissions were evaluated. Accordingly, the most effective ECMs are the insulation of external walls (33–60% energy savings), weather proofing of openings (16–21%), the installation of double-glazed windows (14–20%), the regular maintenance of central heating boilers (10–12%), and the installation of solar collectors for sanitary hot water production (50–80%).     

Residential end-use energy simulation at city scale

This paper describes a simulation model for predicting end-use energy consumption in residential sectors of a city or region. In this model, the annual energy consumption of a dwelling is simulated from the occupants’ schedule of living activities, weather data and energy efficiencies of appliances and dwellings. By summing up the simulation results for various household categories, total energy consumption for the residential sector in a region can be estimated.In this paper, energy consumption for Osaka City is simulated. The result is compared with statistical data. The effects of energy efficiency standards and urban heat island phenomena are examined.     

我国建筑耗能状况及有效的节能途径

简要分析了我国建筑能源消耗状况,从用能特点出发,对建筑物和建筑用能途径进行了新的分类,给出各类的现状、问题和节能潜力。在此基础上列出为实现建筑节能所需要的主要技术与产品研究领域和政策研究与保障机制。文中列出的关键技术研究为：基于模拟分析的建筑节能优化设计;新型建筑围护结构材料与部品;通风装置与排风热回收装置;热泵技术;降低输配系统能源消耗的技术;集中空调的温度湿度独立控制技术;建筑自动化系统的节能优化控制;楼宇式燃气驱动的热电冷三联供技术;燃煤燃气联合供热和末端调峰技术;节能灯、节能灯具与控制。有关政策与保障机制的研究问题为：建筑能耗数据的统计系统;住宅能耗标识方法与保障机制;大型公共建筑能耗评估与用能配额制;各种建筑用能装置的能耗标识标准与方法。     

Contrastive analyses on annual energy consumption characteristics and the influence mechanism between new and old residential buildings in Shanghai, China, by the statistical methods

The purposes of this research are to contrast the energy use characteristics of old residential buildings and new residential buildings in Shanghai, China, to look into influence factors of residential energy consumption, and to further analyze the reasons which result in the differences of energy consumption quantities between high-energy use family group and low-energy use family group. 1610 families in Residential District A and 819 families in Residential District B were chosen to trace their monthly energy consumption data in the whole year of 2006. Buildings in District A were all constructed in the 1980s, while those in District B were built in the 2000s. 300 families in each district were further selected from all above investigated families to do questionnaires in the year of 2007, so as to understand building characteristics, the possession and utilization of space heating and cooling appliances, and energy-saving consciousness. Annual energy consumption of the two kinds of buildings is contrasted and energy consumption quantities of spacing cooling and heating are also calculated. Influencing factors of residential energy consumption are analyzed by Quantification Theory I. Quantification Theory III is used to classify all the families into different categories based on the differences in their energy consumption amounts, and to further find out the reasons leading to the different energy consumption between different groups. Conclusions are as follows: (1) the average annual energy consumption quantity is 23.27 GJ/household for new buildings and 14.40 GJ/household for old buildings. The ratio of space heating and cooling to total annual energy consumption is just 16% and 11.6% for new buildings and old buildings respectively; (2) energy consumption and its variance lie on the integration of many factors, such as the floor area, materials of window frames, the number of family members, operation months of space heaters in winter and air conditioners in summer, and energy-saving actions; (3) all the families in the two districts can be classified into two categories: Household Region M of much energy use, and Household Region N of little energy use. Adopting the aluminum window frames, large floor areas and the large number of family members (above 4 person) are the main reasons leading to more energy use in Household Region M, while the small number of family members (1-2 persons/household) and small floor areas are the main reasons resulting in the less energy use in Household Region N; the long period of space heating, using illumination as little as possible are also the reasons causing the differences in energy consumption quantities between the two categories, but their influences on the samples clustering are smaller than the main reasons above; (4) compared with the energy consumption in some developed countries, the ratio of space heating and cooling to total residential energy use is much smaller in Shanghai. Indoor thermal environment is very poor besides that. With the growth of economy and the improvement of living standard, people will have the higher requirement for good-quality indoor thermal environment, and hence space heaters and coolers will be used much more frequently, so the residential energy consumption in China will still continuously increase rapidly, if few energy-conservation strategies are adopted; (5) considering current little prevalence of energy-saving actions with low efficiency, more effective energy-saving actions should be fully adopted in China.     

Insights into Domestic Demand from a Metering Trial

Detailed metering trials together with a survey of property type, household size, and appliance ownership have provided an opportunity to study domestic demand in detail. The data are presented in a number of alternative ways to highlight the relationship between demand and features of the individual households. The uncertainties inherent in using small samples to estimate demands for an area are discussed, and the usefulness of ACORN classifications to characterize an area is examined.     

Appliance efficiency programs in Australia: labelling and standards

Household appliance penetration and ownership in Australia is higher than in western Europe, and close to North American levels. Most products are manufactured locally, by firms with international links and with access to both European and North American designs and technology. A significant share of the market is imported, mainly from New Zealand, Asia and Europe. Because of the relative mildness of the climate, appliances that carry an energy label (such as dishwashers, clothes washers, clothes dryers, and refrigerators and freezers) account for a greater share of household energy use than in most other developed countries. The energy efficiency of appliances in Australia increased steadily during the early 1980s, but the introduction of mandatory energy labelling in 1986 in some states saw a significant increase in the rate of change. The mandatory government energy labelling program, which is in force in most states, now includes refrigerators, freezers, room air conditioners, dishwashers, clothes washers and clothes dryers. A voluntary industry-based gas appliance energy labelling program is also in place for gas water heaters and flued space heaters. The Australian energy labelling program is widely regarded as among the most informative and salient in the world, and it may be extended to New Zealand over the next few years (many products in NZ already carry the label as the Australian and NZ markets are closely integrated). Label recognition and use is very high among recent and prospective appliance purchasers. The use of a static efficiency scale on the label, while assisting recognition and comprehension, has also reduced the competitive pressure on suppliers, as efficiency improvements have pushed many models to the top of the rating scale. In 1995, Australian energy ministers agreed to implement minimum energy performance standards (MEPS) for refrigerators, freezers, and electric storage water heaters, to take effect in 1999. The levels are relatively moderate, and the effect will be to complement the energy labelling program rather than to transform the energy efficiency of the market.     

Bautechnisch‐bauphysikalische Beurteilung der Wirksamkeit energetischer Sanierungen am Beispiel städtischer Wohnhausanlagen in Wien

Study on the efficiency of thermal refurbishment of residential buildings in Vienna. In the framework of the Kyoto Protocol Austria has committed to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions until 2008/2012 by 13% on the base of 1990. Therefore the Federal Government as well as the provincial governments have implemented programs for the protection of climate including several measures to reduce the emission of hazardous greenhouse gases mainly CO₂. Regarding the enormous potential reduction activities were mainly focused on residential buildings. The refurbishment of the building envelope reduces the heating costs as well as the carbon dioxide emissions and improves the indoor climate. Several investigations were taken to check the utility of thermal refurbishment under structural and physical conditions. Plenty of data available in the line of several expertises of existing residential buildings were analysed and completed by additional investigations. The economic efficiency of thermal insulations is pointed out as well as the period of repayment or the influence of the thickness of insulation on the heating energy demand or possible CO₂‐reductions.     

Present status of residential appliance energy efficiency standards — an international review

This paper discusses the present status of residential appliance energy efficiency standards around the world. A summary table will show the status of energy efficiency standards in various countries. Recent activities concerning standards harmonization in North America and Europe will be described. Some of the barriers to harmonization will also be discussed.     

基于离散选择模型的城市住区居民低碳行为影响因素研究

为缓解城市住区居民生活碳排放的高强度问题,以长沙某住区为例,基于离散选择模型,从住区空间规划、居民的生活行为方式、低碳消费心理、交通能耗标准4个方面研究城市住区居民低碳行为.结果显示:年龄、绿地配置景观绿化设计、商业设施密度、出行方式与主观规范5个变量对低碳行为选择影响显著;通过外部因素结合心理因素分析居民低碳行为的约...     

Hazard assessment of chemical air contaminants measured in residences

Identifying air pollutants that pose a potential hazard indoors can facilitate exposure mitigation. In this study, we compiled summary results from 77 published studies reporting measurements of chemical pollutants in residences in the United States and in countries with similar lifestyles. These data were used to calculate representative mid-range and upper-bound concentrations relevant to chronic exposures for 267 pollutants and representative peak concentrations relevant to acute exposures for five activity-associated pollutants. Representative concentrations are compared to available chronic and acute health standards for 97 pollutants. Fifteen pollutants appear to exceed chronic health standards in a large fraction of homes. Nine other pollutants are identified as potential chronic health hazards in a substantial minority of homes, and an additional nine are identified as potential hazards in a very small percentage of homes. Nine pollutants are identified as priority hazards based on the robustness of measured concentration data and the fraction of residences that appear to be impacted: acetaldehyde; acrolein; benzene; 1,3-butadiene; 1,4-dichlorobenzene; formaldehyde; naphthalene; nitrogen dioxide; and PM(2.5). Activity-based emissions are shown to pose potential acute health hazards for PM(2.5), formaldehyde, CO, chloroform, and NO(2). PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS: This analysis identifies key chemical contaminants of concern in residential indoor air using a comprehensive and consistent hazard-evaluation protocol. The identification of a succinct group of chemical hazards in indoor air will allow for successful risk ranking and mitigation prioritization for the indoor residential environment. This work also indicates some common household activities that may lead to the acute levels of pollutant exposure and identifies hazardous chemicals for priority removal from consumer products and home furnishings.