Natursyns model: A conceptual framework and method for analysing and comparing views of nature

This article presents a conceptual framework and methodology by which stakeholders’ views of nature can be investigated, explained, compared and ‘ideal types’ distilled based on qualitative interviews and, plans, laws and other texts analysed. The aim of such studies is to increase the knowledge about personal, social and cultural aspects of landscape and their relations in general to improve the basis of countryside planning and management in particular. Within the Natursyns model (the Danish word ‘natur’ corresponding to “nature” in English and “syn” implying perceived, imagined, cognized and culturally agreed interpretations) landscape is understood simultaneously as: ‘habitat’, unrealised sense impressions; ‘area’, all the ways in which nature is cognised; and as ‘symbol’, all types of representations of nature and its parts. The use of the model is illustrated; its epistemological foundation, the semiotics and phaneroscopy (phenomenology) of the American philosopher Charles S. Peirce, is described; the content of its fields explained; and benefits and shortcomings discussed.     

Modeling the dynamics of landscape structure in Asia’s emerging desakota regions: a case study in Shenzhen

The rapid urbanization taking place in Asia since 1970 has exhibited a process different from that of the developed countries in the West. This process has contributed to the emergence of a new landscape in Asia — widely known as the desakota (a combination of two Indonesian words: “desa” for village, “kota” for town) regions described in the McGee–Ginsburg model. These desakota regions are characterized by an intense mix of agricultural and non-agricultural activities that often stretch along corridors between large city cores. Although, the McGee–Ginsburg model captures the socio-demographic dimensions of the rapid urbanization process, little is known about the dynamics of landscape structures in the emerging desakota regions in Asia. By linking remote sensing, landscape characterization indices, and cellular automata modeling with geographic information systems (GIS), this paper develops a GIS-based spatial analysis and modeling approach to study the landscape dynamics of the desakota regions in southeast China. We tested our method using data between 1992 and 1996 for the city of Longhua in the Shenzhen Special Economic Zone — one of the fastest growing areas in southeast China. The results not only confirm the effectiveness of GIS-based spatial analysis and modeling approach in studying the ecological impacts of human activities, but also reveal the salient features of landscape dynamics in the desakota regions. Drawing from the results of this research, we conclude that the pace of urbanization and the size of desakota regions must be controlled in order to create a sustainable future in developing countries.     

The Riverside and Berwyn experience: Contrasts in landscape structure, perceptions of the urban landscape, and their effects on people

Humans not only structure the landscape through their activities, but their perceptions of nature are affected by the spatial and temporal arrangements (structure) in the landscape. Our understanding of these interactions, however, is limited. We explored the relationship between landscape structure and peoples’ perceptions of nature in the Chicago, IL, USA, suburbs of Riverside and Berwyn because they offer contrasting paradigms of an urban landscape. Designed in the 1800s by Frederick Law Olmsted, Riverside has several unique design elements (curvilinear streets, ample setbacks, parkways of variable width with mowed grass and naturalistic groupings of trees) that define the structure and composition of this landscape. The urban forest was the keystone of Olmsted's desire to create a harmonious community characterized by “refined sylvan beauty”. In contrast, the adjacent community of Berwyn has right-angled streets with small lots and narrow setbacks for houses. Differences in landscape structure between the two communities produced differences in the diversity, size, and composition of woody vegetation. As measured by patch-size distribution, Riverside had greater diversity in landscape structure than Berwyn, and in turn, Riverside had greater diversity in the composition and size of the woody vegetation compared to Berwyn. Riverside tended toward a “natural” appearance with vegetation, while yards in Berwyn tended to be trimmed and edged. Significant differences between the mean ratings of Riverside and Berwyn respondents were found for six of seven community attribute categories. Riverside participants reported receiving greater benefit from the visual and nature-related features of the urban forest than did Berwyn respondents. Berwyn residents ranked social atmosphere for the community and locomotion (wayfinding) highest among the seven community attribute categories. Despite differences between the two communities, residents valued the green residential environment provided by vegetation. However, the more diverse urban landscape as measured by built structures, woody vegetation, and lot size and shape proved to be more satisfying to the residents of these two communities. The design concepts developed and implemented by Olmsted more than century ago in Riverside are still relevant to city planners striving to develop living environments that are satisfying to urban and suburban residents.     

The neglect of aesthetics in landscape planning in Switzerland

In this paper, landscape is defined as any part of the Earth’s surface in which various aspects, such as terrestrial, aquatic, natural and cultural interact with differing dominance. Within landscapes, energy and material flows over time are major driving forces of landscape dynamics. Such a comprehensive approach to landscape should also be applied in landscape planning, however this is rarely the case in Switzerland. The concept of landscape aesthetics in particular is neglected, therefore, four theses are formulated and discussed in this paper.The tourist industry promotes Switzerland with pictures showing beautiful scenery. Some of the landscape elements shown, e.g. ecclesiastical buildings and historical profane buildings, are widely recognised for their aesthetic values, and scientifically examined by art historians and other disciplines. Strangely enough, this is not the case for cultural landscapes, despite the fact that they also reflect the history of human culture. This paradox evolves from the dichotomy between natural sciences and humanities. There is a lack of multi-, inter-, and trans-disciplinary approaches to studying cultural landscapes. The long-term genesis of the elements of the cultural landscape is illustrated by the typical structure of traditional cultural landscapes, i.e. “the hides of land” (i.e. strip-shaped forest clearings) (Hufenfluren).Between 1750 and 1850, many painters depicted the beauty of the traditional cultural landscape. Their paintings are acknowledged as a part of culture and treated accordingly, but this is not the case for the remains of the cultural landscape they painted. Comparing maps from different points in time reveal the loss of elements of cultural landscapes. Results show how traditional systems of land use led to highly structured landscapes, whereas today’s land-use levels out the scenery. Lack of public support significantly reduces the success of the legal tools to limit this process.     

The “Landscape must become the law”—or should it?

The idea that society ought to be governed by the “law of landscape” must be seen in the context of the process by which the idea of landscape merged with that of nature in the course of the Renaissance and Enlightenment. In order to comprehend how these ideas morphed into the idea that “nature must become the law” as propounded by IFLA this history is traced. Through the linkages of “natural” social ideals with what was seen to be a “natural” style of landscape gardening, reforms sought to promote what often was seen to be a more just and economically, socially and physically sustainable form of society. This was an inherently conservative approach. It is shown how the ideas of landscape that developed from the Enlightenment to the period of land embellishment took a diabolical turn during the era of National Socialism in Germany. The idea of rooted-in-the-soil native plants as the ideal constituent of a German “landscape” continued among landscape architects and landscape planners after the liberation from National Socialism. Though somewhat diluted in the course of the second half of the twentieth century it re-emerged in a kind of renaissance in late twentieth and early twenty-first centuries under the terms “ecological planning” and the “nature garden”. Another source of these ideas lies particularly with the thinking of “anthroposophists”. The passage of a current legal landscape document, The European Landscape Convention, the heritage of the idea that “landscape must become the law” has gained new pertinence.     

Empowering nature conservation in Japanese rural areas: a planning strategy integrating visual and biological landscape perspectives

There has been much discussion about the importance of nature conservation, but a concrete strategy has been lacking. Most conservation measures are reactive to development projects that threaten the sites’ conservation values. There is little synergy between nature conservation and other competing land-use policies. Furthermore, conservation messages are not communicated well because there are few opportunities for those involved in research, policy formation and policy implementation to interact. We illustrate the methodological framework that can be used to address these issues in rural nature conservation by presenting our research conducted in the Arai-Keinan district of Niigata, Japan. The proposed methodological framework consists of integrating visual and biological landscape approaches to understand the area’s natural environment and using participatory research to narrow the communication gaps among those involved. We stress the importance of expressing the research results and recommendations on a map as a strategy for effective nature conservation. The graphical presentation of a map not only allows for clearer delivery of messages from researchers to government officials and residents, but also facilitates coordination among competing land-use policies. The map is the central ammunition in reversing the reactive nature of conservation policies to that of a “preemptive” nature. Future research directions to gain stronger political support are also discussed.     

Function-analysis and valuation as a tool to assess land use conflicts in planning for sustainable, multi-functional landscapes

In order to reconcile landscape conservation with changing demands on land use and natural resources, it is essential that the ecological, socio-cultural and economic values of the landscape be fully taken into account in planning and decision-making.This paper presents a comprehensive framework for integrated assessment of ecological services and socio-economic benefits of natural and semi-natural ecosystems and landscapes. The framework can be applied at different scale levels to different ecosystems or landscape-units and basically consists of three steps: (1) Function-analysis: translates ecological complexity into a limited number of ecosystem (or landscape) functions, which, in turn, provide a range of goods and services; (2) Function valuation: includes ecological, socio-cultural and economic valuation methods; and (3) Conflict analysis: to facilitate the application of function-analysis and valuation at different scale levels, it is important to integrate analytical valuation methods with stakeholder participation techniques.The framework presented in this paper facilitates the structured assessment of the (total) value of the goods and services provided by a specific area (landscape) and to analyze the costs and benefits involved in trade-offs between various land use options. The last section of this paper gives some conclusions and recommendations for application-possibilities of function-analysis and valuation to achieve more sustainable landscape use and maintenance of our “natural capital”.     

Etude de l'evolution de la qualite des eaux de riviere

In France, the creation of a “Ministère de l'Environnement et du Cadre de Vie” and “Agences Financieres de Bassin” has made it possible to obtain information on the water quality of rivers and on the measures necessary to improve water quality. Particularly in the Adour-Garonne Basin, much information is now available. The methodology needed to draw conclusions concerning the quality of the rivers and to show the effectiveness of control measures has been developed.This method has been tested in two catchments (Fig. 1): L'Adour (15,000 km²) and La Dordogne (24,000 km²). The steps that were necessary before this method could be used were: critical assessment of the available data; identification and measurements of pollution sources. This called for the collection of information, annual statistics for each sampling station and information concerning the value and importance of measured parameters.Detailed information is available from 1971 and 1976 and this is shown by maps and graphical representations of the variations in the value of different parameters (Fig. 2).Statistical analysis has also been carried out on the information available for the period 1971–1976.Two methods were used: analysis of the principal components, the method most used being shown by Figs 3 and 4 and the “STATIS” method developed recently which treats the whole data “At 3 indices” (Fig. 5).Research has been carried out on the causal relations between the water quality and the sources of pollution.A simple graphical method is proposed to explain the effect of a strongly preponderant pollutant source. It allows easy visualisation of the change in the relationship between two series of variables (Fig. 8).In general cases of several sources of pollution a simplified method using BOD exclusively has been developed. It consists in comparing the values measured in the river and the estimates obtained from inflows of various sources and those from upstream basins (Fig. 9).The application of this method has made it possible to distinguish local or general tendencies in reference to the intervention realised by the “Agence Financiere de Bassin”.Attention has been given to the variations obtained between laboratories and research information and the necessity to extend application of the statistical method to parameters other than BOD₅.Comparable action is being taken for the whole basin of the Rhone (French). The information obtained for “L'Adour and La Dordogne” has led to a study not only of the concentration of pollutants but two types of flow, with flow measurements and concentration being taken into account in order to eliminate hydraulic effects.     

Performance of “ductless” personalized ventilation in conjunction with displacement ventilation: Impact of disturbances due to walking person(s)

The performance of the novel “ductless” personalized ventilation in conjunction with displacement ventilation (DV) was compared with the performance of DV alone under realistic conditions involving disturbances due to walking of one or two persons. An office room with two workstations was arranged in a full-scale test room. Two thermal manikins were used as sedentary occupants at the workstations. Two pollution sources, namely exhaled air by one of the manikins and passive pollution on the table in front of the same manikin were simulated. The performance of the ventilation systems was evaluated with regard to the quality of inhaled air and thermal comfort of the seated “occupants”. The walking person(s) caused mixing of the clean and cool air near the floor with the polluted and warmer air at higher levels and disturbed the displacement principle which resulted in a decrease of the inhaled air quality. The performance of the “ductless” PV under the tested conditions was better as opposed to DV alone. Thus in practice the “ductless” PV will be superior to DV alone as regards perceived quality of inhaled air. The location of a walking person was found to be important. Person(s) walking close to the displacement diffuser will cause greater disturbance.     

Sustaining creativity in the creative archetype: The case of Austin, Texas

Recently, the popular literature on creative industries and the urban creative landscape has been largely dominated by the work of one scholar, Richard Florida. The popularity of Richard Florida’s work has led to a zealous implementation of his creative class thesis by many city officials, policymakers, and urban planners. Recent studies have investigated the impact of creative city implementation in previously working class and industrial cities, but given Florida’s popularity and influence, it is also necessary to evaluate the sustainability of cities touted as creative success stories by Florida and others. This article examines the case of Austin, Texas, seeking to evaluate Florida’s model city in light of recent empirical research. This research suggests that while Austin has witnessed impressive economic prosperity, the “externalities” or unforeseen challenges associated with creative development are equally evident. Further, this research suggests that previously overlooked socio-cultural challenges (e.g. loss of urban cultural character, sense of detachment, over-commercialization) in Austin threaten to potentially undermine the sustainability of this mode of development.     

Greenways, blueways, skyways and other ways to a better London

“ Landscape planners are quick to criticise other professions for single-use planning, but we tend towards the same mistake when planning greenways and urban greenspace.” This proposition is illustrated by the great series of open space plans which was prepared for London between 1929 and 1976. It is then discussed from a theoretical standpoint with reference to Christopher Alexander, the ‘pattern analysis’ approach to landscape planning, and the author's 1991 report to the London Planning Advisory Committee, Towards a Green Strategy for London. The paper concludes that ‘greenway’ is an excellent marketing term, but that product diversification and product differentiation must take place. We need special varieties of greenway for special purposes. Brief Alexander-type patterns are outlined for seven varieties: parkway, blueway, paveway, glazeway, skyway, ecoway and cycleway.     

Woodland as a setting for housing-appreciation and fear and the contribution to residential satisfaction and place identity in Warrington New Town, UK

This study evaluates “woodland in the ecological style” as a setting for contemporary housing by means of a case study of Birchwood, Warrington New Town, UK, using a postal questionnaire and semi-structured interviews to reveal residents’ perceptions of the aesthetic and safety aspects of the woodland, together with its underlying meanings. Most Birchwood residents liked the visual appearance of their street, though they had both positive and negative feelings towards its “trees and greenery”. Woodland in the local area figured prominently amongst the residents’ favourite places though some feared that they would be the victims of physical or sexual assault, or of robbery or intimidation from groups of young people in the woodland, and women felt particularly vulnerable. Whilst the woodland was significant for many residents it was not strongly identified with Birchwood as a place: the quality of the community as symbolised by the behaviour of local individuals, community groups and institutions was regarded as a more potent measure of local identity. Colourful and well-tended landscape interventions had the ability to act as signs of a caring community. The contribution of these findings to theoretical frameworks of residential satisfaction, restorative experiences and place identity is discussed: it is suggested, inter alia, that whilst signs of individual and collective care in the landscape contribute to communal place identity, individual experiences of wilder urban green spaces, including those of a restorative nature, are formative of individual place attachment. The implications for planning, design and management with ecological woodland are explored: urban dwellers should be able to choose their preferred way of interacting with the woodland, residential settings should accommodate a wide variety of user needs, and the vegetation on and around the streetscape should be proactively managed in consultation with the community.     

Remaining tree species from the indigenous vegetation of Ankara, Turkey

The city of Ankara is located in the geographic centre of Anatolia, Turkey. In the state of nature, Anatolia was covered with forests. Due to the destructive effects of civilisations passing through Anatolia over the centuries, the forest vegetation was gradually transformed to a steppe formation. After it became the capital city, a rapid planned urbanisation process was initiated in Ankara. In the first development plan, efforts were concentrated on the south axis of the city, which harbored the greatest concentration of indigenous plant cover in the valleys.In 1974, the embassy gardens and parks on the north–south axis were declared a “Natural Conservation Area”. Despite the conservation act, change and denuding of indigenous vegetation continued all along the axis due to highly increasing development. However, these conservation areas still include tree species from the indigenous vegetation. In this study, the presidency gardens, the embassy gardens and parks in Ankara that were declared a “conservation area” were evaluated in terms of the remaining tree species from the indigenous plant cover. The study aims to indicate the level of conservation of natural habitat in Ankara and to determine whether the concept of “Natural Conservation Areas” includes the protection of biodiversity or not. Moreover, the research results aim to reveal still existing tree species of indigenous vegetation, which will enlighten us regarding future landscape planning in Central Anatolia. Trees were examined by age, height and exposition. The results show that remaining indigenous tree species of the study area grow along the former ncesu River and that the terrain on which the trees stand is mostly exposed to the southwest and southeast. The indigenous tree species which do not exist in the study area are scattered in valleys along the river trails or on the hills of Ankara’s rural lands.     

Development of a new direct test method for estimating cutter life, based on the Sievers’ J miniature drill test

The Sievers’ J-miniature drill test (SJ) has been used extensively at NTNU/SINTEF since the 1960s in connection with drillability testing of rock samples. Nearly 3000 samples have been tested, and the method is at present internationally recognised as a reliable method for determination of surface hardness of rock samples. A new test method for estimation of cutter life has evolved as a result of a recent update of the SJ test. This update was made possible by the development of instrumentation of the test apparatus. The new test method analyses the penetration depth and speed during the testing. The point in time where an interception occurs between the tangent lines for what could be defined as the “effective drilling” part and the “worn out” part of the penetration curve is defined as the Sievers’ J interception point or SJIP. Testing of 212 rock samples, representing different rock types, and correlations of the results to some of the most widely used methods for estimation of cutter life, show that it is possible to obtain a direct cutter life estimate by use of the SJIP value. The demand for representative parameters for rock properties in connection with underground excavations is increasing, as this constitutes the fundamental input for obtaining the most reliable cost estimates. The new test method provides information that was previously unavailable. This will improve the understanding on how different rock types and properties affect the drilling process and the wear on cutter tools. This test method is not meant to act as a substitute for well established and currently used test methods, but rather constitute an additional tool that can contribute to “bridge the gap” between laboratory testing, modelling and the actual excavation process estimates.     

How the Dutch city of Tilburg gets to the roots of the agricultural ‘kampen’ landscape

The Southern sandy areas in The Netherlands, characterised by small fields, intensive agriculture and a high population density, are turning into a vast urban conglomeration. The agricultural ‘kampen’ landscape has left its traces on the urban fabric with its scattered buildings and green wedges. It took centuries to transform 10 small villages into the town of Tilburg. Development of the qualities of the sandy areas calls for a unifying concept. The central issue is the transformation of landscape elements into the new urban context. The city of Tilburg decides to take the Greenstructure plan as the overall vision for the integration of town and countryside. The plan offers a medium-range strategy on the development of city districts, outdoor spaces and nature areas. ‘Greenstructures’ have to contribute to the segmentation of the conurbation by transforming landscape elements into inner landscape. Pilot projects demonstrate how urbanisation can fit the cultural landscape. These projects breathe new life into the (post) industrial landscape.     

A continuum of organizations formed to carry out projects: Temporary and stationary organization forms

Projects are carried out by temporary organizations. These organizations can function independently or in cooperation with stationary organizations. To enable efficient project and program management, these differences in organization structure have to be considered. This paper therefore contrasts organizations formed to carry out activities at project sites based on forms of employment, work processes and resource networks used. Findings indicate that temporary organizations that are dominated by stationary “parent” organizations often rely on its abilities to secure access to crucial resources and to identify suitable work processes. “Pure” or virtually “pure” temporary organizations instead rely on their employees’ skills and contacts to develop suitable routines and gain access to resources.     

Bridging human and natural sciences in landscape research

Landscape issues are of interest in many disciplines, but they are seldom seen as an opportunity for inter- or transdisciplinary cooperation. This limits the ability to account for real world complexity. Bridging human and natural sciences intends to foster and coordinate communication about landscape-related issues—within academia and between science and society. The collection of papers in this special issue and the recommendations for future research are selected from the conference “Multifunctional Landscapes—Interdisciplinary Approaches to Landscape Research and Management” in Roskilde, Denmark, 2000. The contributions all bear evidence of an integrating approach to landscape research, bridging human and natural sciences.     

Woodlots in the rural landscape: landowner motivations and management attitudes in a Michigan (USA) case study

Woodlots provide important environmental benefits in the Midwestern (USA) landscape, where they are undergoing rapid change. An increasingly diverse farm and non-farm population owns these non-industrial private forests (NIPFs). It is essential to understand what motivates NIPF landowners to retain and manage their forests. We describe a study of NIPF owners in an agricultural watershed where forest cover is increasing. What motivations and management practices might be contributing to this increase? The results of a survey of 112 NIPF owners suggest that aesthetic appreciation is the strongest motivator for retaining woodlots, especially by non-farmers. Protecting the environment also seems to be important for both farmers and non-farmers, while economic motivations are significantly less important. Landowners indicated that they are primarily taking a “hands-off” approach to management. This study provides insights for those interested in understanding NIPF landowners’ motivations and for developing effective programs.     

Comprehensive concept planning of urban greening based on ecological principles: a case study in Beijing, China

Greenspace is an important part of complex urban ecosystems and provides significant ecosystem services. It benefits urban communities environmentally, esthetically, recreationally and economically. Beijing Province is in north of China, and has a total area of 16,807.8 km² and a population of about 13.8 million. This paper aims to develop a comprehensive conceptual framework for urban greening of Beijing Province based on landscape ecological principles. It attempts to answer how to establish an urban greening plan at the regional, city and neighborhood levels to achieve long-term sustainability. At the regional level, a big natural and semi-natural forest area in the northwest and an ecological buffer belt in the southeast are planned to protect the environmental quality of Beijing and provide habitats for wildlife. At the city level, a green network system of green wedges, parks and green corridors has been proposed. This green network helps to limit future urban expansion, improve urban environmental quality and serve as habitats and migration routes for wildlife. At the neighborhood level, green extensions and connections of riverside greenway, road greenway, parks and vertical greening permeate into the built-up areas. They provide open space close to residential areas and offer places for recreation. This three-level green system constitutes an integrated ecological network for urban sustainable development of Beijing. For future development of Beijing, urban parks, forestry, agriculture, water and infrastructure should be planned and designed in an integrated way. After this greenspace plan is legislated and completely realized, Beijing will develop an interconnected and integrated network of urban greenspaces. It has the prospect of achieving the aim of “Green Olympic City 2008” and the long-term goal of developing Beijing towards an “Eco-City”.     

Incorporating ecological sustainability into landscape planning

The ecological component is crucial in landscape planning according to the principles of sustainable development. We define “ecologically sustainable landscape” and develop a tool to measure how ecological sustainability is incorporated in landscape plans. This method acknowledges the critical role of spatial scale and pattern to the conservation of biodiversity. The metapopulation concept is used as a spatially explicit ecological theory, appropriate to describe the relation between biodiversity and the pattern of ecosystem patches (“ecosystem network”) in intensively used regions. We propose that ecological sustainability is achieved if quality, area and configuration of the ecosystem network permit target species to persist. A simple decision-making model represents a theoretical framework for a tool comprising two sets of ecological indicators. One set indicates the awareness of actors to consider ecological principles of sustainable planning. The other set indicates their performance to apply these principles quantitatively in designing the ecosystem pattern. The method is applied on a sample of reports on Dutch landscape development plans. A majority of the reports shows awareness of the importance of spatial conditions for achieving planning goals, but perform inadequately on the quantitative indicators. We conclude that the tool could be developed as a guideline and assessment method for the ecological sustainability of landscape plans.