Developmental and social influences on young girls' early problem behavior.

A developing body of research suggests that there are few sex differences in the rate and severity of problem behavior in early childhood, but clear sex differences emerge at about 4 years of age. The authors explore 2 hypotheses to further the understanding of emerging sex differences in problem behavior across the first 5 years of life. The first posits that the change in girls' problem behavior from infancy to school entry represents a channeling of early problem behavior into predominantly internalizing problems as a result of socialization. The second hypothesis is that the change in girls' early problem behavior during the preschool period results from the more rapid biological, cognitive, and social–emotional development of girls relative to boys. The authors review research on the influence of parents, teachers, and peers on girls' behavior from infancy to preschool regarding the first hypothesis, whereas they review studies of sex differences in developmental processes to test the second. They find moderate support for both hypotheses and present a comprehensive theory of girls' developmental psychopathology that integrates social and developmental influences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental differences in study behavior.

This study is a developmental examination of strategy instruction and the context that promotes when and how strategy instruction is maximized. The 4 experimental manipulations included comparisons between 2 strategy conditions, familiar and unfamiliar text, dyad versus individual study, and 4 age groups (M?=?10.5, 14.7, 19.9, and 21.9 yrs). The 486 students from Grades 5–6, and 9–10 and 1st- and 4th-yr university were assigned randomly to 1 strategy condition (self-study or elaborative interrogation) and 1 study context (dyad or individual). Participants studied and recalled 60 facts about familiar and unfamiliar animals. Explicit instruction in elaborative interrogation promoted memory performance, especially in the younger population. Studying in dyads enhanced memory and quality of study across age. To enhance text learning performance, students should be given explicit strategy instruction and should study interactively with their peers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Simultaneous study of individual differences and relationship effects in social behavior in groups.

The behavior of 35 graduate students, divided into 4 experiential training groups as part of a course in group psychotherapy, was observed over 12 weekly meetings to assess whether relationship and individual effects in dyads in groups are associated with specific types of behavior. The authors focused on 2 relevant verbal behaviors for small group settings: self-disclosure and questions asked. Self-disclosure was represented by sharing of personal information with another and by feeling statements; questioning was represented by asking for information or for a specific behavior from another. Self-disclosure comprised 40% and questioning 20% of all behavior coded. Round-robin ANOVAs of total verbal behavior, self-disclosing, and questioning during the 1st 6 wks and the last 6 wks revealed several indications of relationship effects and actor and partner individual difference effects. Results demonstrate that self-disclosing behavior in small groups is a function of the relationships among members in the group, in addition to individual differences in self-disclosing behavior. Findings support the incremental validity of relationship effects as in the study by L. La Voie (unpublished dissertation) and extend the external validity of relationship effects to important social behavior in small group settings. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental and gender differences in the sex stereotyping of nurturance and dominance.

Girls and boys aged 7, 10, and 14 yrs told stories involving nurturant and dominant adult characters. Differences between nurturant and dominant stories, in the relative mention of male and female characters, were evaluated. It was found that (a) orientation to same-sex adults decreased with age; (b) children attributed nurturance to same-sex characters but attributed dominance to male characters; and (c) there was a developmental increase in the attribution of dominance to male characters and in the attribution of nurturance to female characters. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dispositional and situational influences on dominance behavior in small groups.

101 college students were observed in small-group discussions to determine the degree to which a previously administered personality measure (the Dominance scale of the California Personality Inventory) would predict overt verbal and nonverbal behaviors. Results indicate that within all-male and all-female groups, scores on the Dominance scale exhibited only modest power to predict the frequency of any single behavior but were highly correlated with the overall pattern of dominance-related behaviors displayed by the Ss. In addition, situational influence was indicated by the negligible personality–behavior correlations obtained for both males and females in the mixed-sex discussion groups. (47 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mental capacity and cognitive functioning: Developmental and social class differences.

Hypothesized that social class performance differences of same-age children would be negligible on pure mental (M) capacity measures but would be greater on tasks that confound other variables with M capacity. This hypothesis is anchored in a neo-Piagetian theory of cognitive development (J. Pascual-Leone; see record 1971-07908-001), which gives a central role to an attentional mechanism of limited M capacity that grows monotonically with age. 268 Israeli 8-, 10-, and 12-yr-olds of low or high SES completed 10 cognitive developmental tasks that measured pure M capacity, short-term memory, verbal IQ, and spatial-analytic ability. Results show that M capacity developed similarly in same-age Ss, regardless of SES. Significant differences among the investigated populations were found only in performing tasks that confounded factors of learning and style. Results support the notion that a cognitive development process exists that is universal in stage sequences and in the rate and timing of development. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Two social worlds: social correlates and stability of adolescent status groups

Adolescents' peer group status in high school was examined using self-report, peer nominations, and archival data collected during 2 consecutive school years. Higher status students (popular and controversial) had more close friends, engaged more frequently in peer activities, and self-disclosed more than lower status students (rejected and neglected). They were also more involved in extracurricular school activities and received more social honors from their schoolmates. Although the higher status students were more alike than different, controversial adolescents did report more self-disclosure and dating behavior than popular students. Lower status students were also highly similar, although rejected students reported lower grades. Regarding the temporal stability of these status groups, the adolescent sample exhibited slightly higher overall stability than that found in previous investigations of younger children.     

The dialogue of touch: Developmental play therapy.

Presents the theoretical basis of Developmental Play Therapy (DPT) and its particular usefulness with neglected, abused, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) children. Two case studies are described of a 4-yr-old male who was seen as part of a group of severely unmanageable children in a school setting, and a 4-yr-old female in individual treatment for behavior problems. The cases are presented to illustrate how the dialogue of touch in DPT affected behavior in these 2 cases. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual-group behavioral similarity and peer status in experimental play groups of boys: The social misfit revisited.

This study evaluated individual–group similarity and dissimilarity hypotheses generally stipulating that the behavioral correlates of status are moderated by the peer group context in which they are displayed. Thirty play groups of 5 or 6 unacquainted same-age boys participated in five 45-min sessions. Five behaviors described group and individual characteristics: reactive aggression, proactive aggression, solitary play, rough-and-tumble play, and positive interactive behavior. Individual social preference scores were computed following a variant of the J. D. Coie and K. A. Dodge (1983) procedure. The behavioral correlates of emerging peer status were examined as a function of the group's behavioral norms. Evidence of a dissimilarity effect was found for solitary play and reactive aggression whereas positive interactive behavior followed a rule of similarity. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Temporal and cross-situational stability of children's social and play behavior.

Assessed the stability of behavior over 8 3-day periods of 34 preschoolers 31–58 mo old, who were observed using the Parten-Smilansky categories. Cross-situational coefficients were significant at the .01 level for all behaviors. Temporal coefficients were also high when sufficiently long time periods were sampled. Results indicate that under some conditions the Parten-Smilansky instrument will satisfy the requirements of classical psychometric theory. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Opiates and play dominance in juvenile rats.

Studied social play between approximately 155 pairs of individually housed juvenile Long-Evans hooded rats in 4 experiments. Pinning frequencies, occurring during rough-and-tumble play, were measured. Low doses of morphine (2 mg/kg) increased play, and opioid blockade with naloxone (1 mg/kg) reduced play. Dominance, as measured by which pinned which most, was markedly reduced by naloxone (1 mg/kg) and slightly increased by morphine (1 mg/kg). These effects were most apparent when Ss were treated with these drugs continuously from the beginning of play testing. Although the respective drugs tended to reverse established dominance patterns (i.e., naloxone made dominant Ss more submissive, and morphine made submissive Ss more dominant), it was apparent that previously established social learning limited the effectiveness of these manipulations. In general, the results are consistent with the proposition that brain opioids are important in controlling the vigor of social relations. (33 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Roles of temperamental arousal and gender-segregated play in young children's social adjustment.

The hypothesis that gender differences in children's adjustment is partially influenced by differences in temperament and interactions with same-sex peers was examined. Fifty-seven predominantly White, middle-class preschoolers (29 boys and 28 girls, M age?=?54.5 months) participated. Measures were taken of children's arousability, problem behaviors, and tendencies to play with same-sex peers. A semester later, children's peer status was assessed. Analyses revealed that arousability and same-sex peer play interacted to predict problem behaviors. For boys high in arousability, play with same-sex peers increased problem behaviors. In contrast, arousable girls who played with other girls were relatively unlikely to show problem behaviors. Moreover, the interaction of arousability and same-sex peer play predicted boys' (but not girls') peer status, and this relation was partially mediated by problem behaviors. The role of gender-related processes is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The social endocrinology of dominance: Basal testosterone predicts cortisol changes and behavior following victory and defeat.

Past research suggests that individuals high in basal testosterone are motivated to gain high status. The present research extends previous work by examining endocrinological and behavioral consequences of high and low status as a function of basal testosterone. The outcome of a competition--victory versus defeat--was used as a marker of status. In Study 1, high testosterone men who lost in a dog agility competition rose in cortisol, whereas high testosterone men who won dropped in cortisol. Low testosterone men's cortisol changes did not depend on whether they had won or lost. Study 2 replicated this pattern of cortisol changes in women who participated in an experimental laboratory competition, and Study 2 extended the cortisol findings to behavior. Specifically, high testosterone winners chose to repeat the competitive task, whereas high testosterone losers chose to avoid it. In contrast, low testosterone winners and losers did not differ in their task preferences. These results provide novel evidence in humans that basal testosterone predicts cortisol reactivity and behavior following changes in social status. Implications for the social endocrinology of dominance are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Q-sort correlates of visual regard in groups of young preschool children.

In recent studies, researchers have evaluated relations between visual attention received from peers and social competence in preschool children. To date, however, subjects have been older children (4 to 6 years of age), or, if mixed-age groups were studied, age has been controlled statistically rather than being considered as a factor mediating the relation between visual regard and social competence. In this study, relations between visual regard and Q-sort scores for social competence were evaluated in 4 preschool classes (N?=?54). Additionally, the Q-set items were correlated with visual regard. Visual attention was associated with social competence in the full sample and within each age group. However, specific Q-item correlated of attention suggested that aspects of functioning other than social competence also contributed to visual regard scores. Hierarchical regression analyses indicated that visual attention was also associated with the ego-undercontrol construct. The results suggest the possibility that, for younger children, visual regard from peers may index general social visibility, a construct related to, but broader than, social competence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles.

The origins of sex differences in human behavior can lie mainly in evolved dispositions that differ by sex or mainly in the differing placement of women and men in the social structure. The present article contrasts these 2 origin theories of sex differences and illustrates the explanatory power of each to account for the overall differences between the mate selection preferences of men and women. Although this research area often has been interpreted as providing evidence for evolved dispositions, a reanalysis of D. M. Buss's (see record 1989-32627-001) study of sex differences in the attributes valued in potential mates in 37 cultures yielded cross-cultural variation that supports the social structural account of sex differences in mate preferences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Relational correlates of interpersonal citizenship behavior: A social network perspective.

This study examines the role of social network ties in the performance and receipt of interpersonal citizenship behavior (ICB), one form of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). A field study involving 141 employees of a manufacturing firm provided evidence that social network ties are related to the performance and receipt of ICB. Results support hypothesized relationships, which are based on social exchange theory, suggesting strength of friendship is related to performance and receipt of ICB. Support was also found for impression management-based hypotheses suggesting that asymmetric influence and 3rd-party influence are related to the performance and receipt of ICB. These relationships were significant when controlling for job satisfaction, commitment, procedural justice, hierarchical level, demographic similarity, and job similarity. Implications and directions for future research are addressed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The emergence of social cognitive neuroscience.

Social cognitive neuroscience is an emerging interdisciplinary field of research that seeks to understand phenomena in terms of interactions between 3 levels of analysis: the social level, which is concerned with the motivational and social factors that influence behavior and experience; the cognitive level, which is concerned with the information-processing mechanisms that give rise to social-level phenomena; and the neural level, which is concerned with the brain mechanisms that instantiate cognitive-level processes. The social cognitive neuroscience approach entails conducting studies and constructing theories that make reference to all 3 levels and contrasts with traditional social psychological and cognitive neuroscientific research that primarily makes reference to 2 levels. The authors present an introduction to and analysis of the field by reviewing current research and providing guidelines and suggested directions for future work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prevalence estimates and adolescent risk behavior: Cross-cultural differences in social influence.

Prevalence estimates and prototype perceptions related to health risk behaviors were assessed in comparable samples of Danish and American adolescents (ages 13–15 years). Partly on the basis of observation and previous research, the assumption was made that the American sample would report more self-enhancement tendencies than would the Danish sample. Consistent with this assumption, which was supported by the data, 2 hypotheses were tested: (a) The Americans would overestimate the prevalence of the various risk behaviors (among their peers) more so than would the Danes and (b) those estimates would be more closely linked to their own risk behaviors for the American sample. Results supported both hypotheses; motivational explanations were proposed for both effects. In addition, perceptions of the prototypes associated with particular risk behaviors were assessed and were found to predict smoking behavior and willingness to engage in unprotected sexual intercourse for both samples. Implications for the study of adolescent risk behavior are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Developmental differences in responses to a television character's appearance and behavior.

In a 2?×?2?×?3 design, 52 3–5 yr olds, 58 6–7 yr olds, and 59 9–10 yr olds viewed a videotape in which a female protagonist's appearance (attractive, ugly) was factorially varied with her behavior (kind, cruel). Perceptions of the protagonist and predictions of the story's outcome were assessed. Based on theoretical and empirical evidence of a developmental decrease in perceptual dependence, the influence of the woman's appearance was expected to decrease with age, and the influence of her behavior was expected to increase with age. These expectations were confirmed. A 2nd study was conducted with 40 4–5 yr olds, 41 6–7 yr olds, and 34 9–21 yr olds to rule out the alternative explanation that younger children possess stronger physical appearance stereotypes than do older children. In this study, Ss did not have information about the woman's behavior. It was found that Ss at all 3 age levels demonstrated appearance stereotyping. (36 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The dyadic nature of social information processing in boys' reactive and proactive aggression.

The correlation between boys' social cognitions and their aggressive behavior toward peers was examined as being actor driven, partner driven, or dyadic relationship driven. Eleven groups of 6 familiar boys each (N?=?165 dyads) met for 5 consecutive days to participate in play sessions and social-cognitive interviews. With a variance partitioning procedure, boys' social-cognitive processes were found to vary reliably across their dyadic relationships. Furthermore, mixed models regression analyses indicated that hostile attributional biases toward a particular peer were related to directly observed reactive aggression toward that peer even after controlling for actor and partner effects, suggesting that these phenomena are dyadic or relationship oriented. On the other hand, the relation between outcome expectancies for aggression and the display of proactive aggression appeared to be more actor driven and partner driven that dyadic. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)