The influence of surface energy on the wetting behaviour of the spore adhesive of the marine alga Ulva linza (synonym Enteromorpha linza).

The environmental scanning electron microscope has been used to image the adhesive pads secreted by zoospores of the marine alga Ulva linza as they settle on a range of self-assembled and grafted monolayers of different wettability, under natural, hydrated conditions. Results reveal that the diameter of the adhesive pad is strongly influenced by surface wettability, the adhesive spreading more (i.e. wetting the surface better) on the more hydrophilic surfaces. This is in direct contrast to previous observations on the spreading of marine bioadhesives and is in apparent contradiction to the predictions of the Young-Dupre equation for three-phase systems. In this paper, we attempt an explanation based upon thermodynamic analysis of the wetting properties of hydrophilic proteins.     

Investigation of the spreading and adhesion of human osteosarcoma cells on smooth and micro-grooved polydimethylsiloxane surfaces

The paper presents recent results of the study of spreading and adhesion of human osteosarcoma cells on soft polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) materials. Cell/surface interactions are studied on smooth and micro-grooved PDMS surfaces. The viscoelastic spreading behavior of the human osteosarcoma cells (during the spreading stages on smooth PDMS surfaces) was studied using wetting theory. The HOS cell spreading behavior was also investigated in the micro-grooved PDMS surfaces in an effort to study the contact guidance formation process. The results show that the initial stages of HOS cell spreading can be modeled as a complete wetting process. The results also show that the cell cytoplasm contributes more to the spreading process than the nucleus. In the case of cell spreading on micro-grooved surfaces, the cell tractions resulted in significant deformation of the microgrooves. The tractions were also calculated, and found to be in good agreement with the results from other studies. The results suggest that the cell spreading-induced soft substrate deformation needs to be considered in the design of implantable bioMEMS structures.     

Experimental research on wetting behavior of refrigerant–oil mixture on micro/nanostructured surface

The wettability of micro/nanostructured surface is a key property for its application in enhancing the boiling heat transfer of refrigerant–oil mixture. The objective of this research is to experimentally investigate the wetting behavior of refrigerant–oil mixture on micro/nanostructured surface. Three types of surfaces including plain copper surface (PS), micro/nanostructured surface (MNS) and micro/nanostructured surface with fluorinated self-assembled monolayer (MNFS) were fabricated; and the wetting behavior of pure R141b as well as R141b-NM56 mixtures with different oil concentrations on three types of surfaces was measured. The experimental results show that the protuberant liquid film is formed during the wetting of refrigerant–oil mixture on MNS or PS, but does not exist on MNFS; the presence of F-SAM or micro/nanostructure modified by F-SAM reduces the surface wettability, while the presence of micro/nanostructure increases the surface wettability; oil increases the wettability of refrigerant on MNS, while it reduces the wettability of refrigerant on MNFS.     

Static solvent contact angle measurements, surface free energy and wettability determination of various self-assembled monolayers on silicon dioxide

In many fields and applications, a good knowledge of the wetting behaviour of solvents on a surface is crucial. Self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) have enabled improved control over surface properties, while more recent fields such as organic electronics gave rise to new applications and requirements regarding solvent-substrate interactions. However, most reported wettability studies are limited to practically less relevant solvents such as water, diiodomethane or hexadecane. Herein we report static contact angle measurements of various, typical SAM-modified surfaces, characterizing these surfaces' wettabilities over a wide range of practically relevant solvents. Surface energies, both the polar and the disperse component, of these SAM-modified surfaces are extracted with various methods from the contact angle data. Reliable methods for surface energy extraction, such as the Owens-Wendt-Rabel-Kaelble method and the method after Wu, yield values which could be expected from the chemical structure and nature of the self-assembled molecules and which correspond well to the few reported literature values. We also determined wetting envelopes for the various surfaces which allow easy prediction of the surfaces' wettability for a certain solvent and which ensure relevance for current and future solvents.     

Wettability and spreading kinetics of liquid aluminium on boron nitride

The wettability and spreading kinetics of liquid AI on CVD-BN were investigated by the sessile drop method in a vacuum of about 1.1×10⁻³ Pa at 1070 to 1430 K. The wettability on the Al-BN system was different from that of the Al-SiC system reported in the literature. The wetting angle of Al-BN linearly decreased with an increase of temperature in high temperature range, and tended towards 15° at 1430 K. Complete wetting could be obtained at about 1470 K. The interface energy between liquid Al and the reaction layer and the surface energy of CVD-BN were calculated by means of Warren thermodynamics analysis. The surface of CVD-BN was examined by XRD. The results show that the surface of CVD-BN was chiefly composed of those low energy planes parallel to (001). According to the relationship of the spreading kinetics from the experiments, the apparent activation energy of the liquid Al spreading on the surface of CVD-BN was calculated. The result shows that the activation energy of interfacial reaction accounts for about 54% of the spread activation energy. The spread of liquid Al on CVD-BN was affected by the interfacial reaction, diffusion and liquid movement on the surface.     

In vitro real-time characterization of cell attachment and spreading

A method based on the piezoelectric quartz crystal microbalance (QCM) technique for in vitro real-time characterization of cell attachment and spreading on surfaces has been developed. The method simultaneously measures the resonant frequency, f, and the dissipation energy, D, of the oscillating system. The QCM responses are sensitive to very small amounts (a few hundreds) of cells and highly specific to surface chemical properties. The first results from deposition of cells on two polystyrene surfaces of different wettability in serum-containing medium are reported. It has previously been shown that a decrease in f is related to the degree of cell spreading. In our data it appears that the extent or quality of cell attachment is reflected in an increase in D caused by adhering cells. The combined information from f and D measured by this technique might therefore be useful to probe cell–surface interactions for biomaterials. © 1998 Kluwer Academic Publishers     

Effect of temperature and substrate surface texture on wettability and morphology of IMCs between Sn–0.7Cu solder alloy and copper substrate

In the present work, the effect of soldering temperature (270 and 298?°C) and substrate surface texture (0.02 and 1.12?μm) on wetting characteristics and morphology of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) between Sn–0.7Cu lead-free solder on copper substrates was investigated. It was found that increase in temperature and substrate surface roughness improved the wettability of solder alloy. However, the effect of surface roughness on wettability was significant as compared to that of temperature. The spreading of solder alloy was uniform on smooth substrate, whereas spreading of the alloy on rough substrate resulted in an oval shape. The morphology of IMCs transformed from long needle shaped to short and thick protrusions of IMCs with increase in surface roughness of the substrate. Needle shaped and thick protruded intermetallics formed at the solder/Cu interface were identified as Cu₆Sn₅ compounds. The formation of Cu₃Sn IMC was observed only for the spreading of solder alloy at 298?°C which contributed to improvement in the wettability of solder alloy on both smooth and rough substrate surfaces.     

A Review of Smart Superwetting Surfaces Based on Shape-Memory Micro/Nanostructures

Bioinspired smart superwetting surfaces with special wettability have aroused great attention from fundamental research to technological applications including self-cleaning, oil–water separation, anti-icing/corrosion/fogging, drag reduction, cell engineering, liquid manipulation, and so on. However, most of the reported smart superwetting surfaces switch their wettability by reversibly changing surface chemistry rather than surface microstructure. Compared with surface chemistry, the regulation of surface microstructure is more difficult and can bring novel functions to the surfaces. As a kind of stimulus-responsive material, shape-memory polymer (SMP) has become an excellent candidate for preparing smart superwetting surfaces owing to its unique shape transformation property. This review systematically summarizes the recent progress of smart superwetting SMP surfaces including fabrication methods, smart superwetting phenomena, and related application fields. The smart superwettabilities, such as superhydrophobicity/superomniphobicity with tunable adhesion, reversible switching between superhydrophobicity and superhydrophilicity, switchable isotropic/anisotropic wetting, slippery surface with tunable wettability, and underwater superaerophobicity/superoleophobicity with tunable adhesion, can be obtained on SMP micro/nanostructures by regulating the surface morphology. Finally, the challenges and future prospects of smart superwetting SMP surfaces are discussed.     

表面超疏水性能的数值模拟研究进展

表面超疏水是自然界中一种常见的极端润湿现象。一般认为,表面超疏水是由表面微观结构和化学成分共同决定的。超疏水表面由于独特的非润湿性能,在润湿性变化、减阻、液滴弹跳、传热、蒸发、冷凝等方面具有广泛的应用前景。总结了近年来研究人员在超疏水表面润湿性变化、减阻、液滴弹跳、传热、蒸发、冷凝等方面的数值模拟研究情况,归纳了在超疏水性能研究中常用的数值模拟方法,并对其进行了评价,指出了这些方法存在的优点和缺点,提出了超疏水性能数值模拟研究应该关注的重点和研究方向。     

The effects of solder deformation on the wetting characteristics and interfacial reaction of Sn–3.5Ag solders on Cu substrates in fluxless soldering

The effects of solder deformation on the wetting characteristics during fluxless soldering were studied when deformed Sn–3.5Ag solder balls were reacted with Cu or oxidized Cu substrates. The Cu surfaces were oxidized at 100 °C for 2 or 4 h in air. After the 760 μm diameter solder balls were deformed on the substrates under 0–30 N, they were then reflowed at 300 °C for 30 s without flux. An optical microscope and a scanning electron microscope equipped with energy dispersive spectroscopy were used to measure the wetting angles and to characterize interfacial microstructures. As solder deformation increased, the wetting angle of solder bumps on the Cu or oxidized Cu substrates decreased and the spreading area increased. The oxide layer on the Cu surface decreased the wettability of the solders. Intermetallic compound (IMC) growth was suppressed in the solder interface when the solder reacted with oxidized Cu, while the IMC thickness increased with solder deformation. Solder deformation exposed a fresh Sn surface and improved contact between the solder and Cu substrate, thereby increasing the wettability of the solders.     

The effects of laser-induced modification of surface roughness of Al2O3-based ceramics on fluid contact angle

Laser surface treatment of Al₂O₃-based refractory ceramics, by melting and re-solidification, can be successfully applied to producing surfaces that are pore-free, homogeneous and crack-free. Such treated surfaces can lead to an increase in the corrosion and erosion resistances of the materials, due to lower permeability to corrosive species and higher surface hardness, respectively. Furthermore, the corrosion resistance can be influenced by the wetting characteristics of the treated surfaces in service environment. Therefore, it is important to investigate the effect of laser treatment of ceramic materials on the interaction of the surface with the various environmental elements. This work is concerned with an experimental investigation of the effects of laser surface treatment, by melting and re-solidification, on the fluid contact angles of Al₂O₃-based refractory ceramics. These effects are examined by the modification of the surface roughness characteristics induced by laser treatment. Laser-treated surfaces, both containing cracks and crack-free, are compared with untreated surfaces and the results are reported. The untreated surfaces demonstrated considerable non-uniformity in wetting, in contrast to the treated surfaces. The extent of wetting of the laser-treated surfaces containing cracks was proportional to laser power density. This is due to wetting being enhanced, among other factors, by surface roughness, which increased with power density. The crack-free surfaces were the most smooth and, thereby, exhibited the smallest extent of wettability variations. The reduction in wettability after the laser treatment (crack-free) may have an advantage for corrosion resistance.     

Flux-assisted spreading of an Al–7 wt%Si alloy on TiC

The effect of a K–Al–F-based flux was investigated on the wettability of TiC by an Al–7 wt%Si alloy in the interval of temperatures between 660 and 900 °C in Ar and in atmospheric air. Null spreading was observed without flux whereas perfect wetting was enabled by the flux in both atmospheres. The liquid flux, which provides a locally protective atmosphere by spreading on the surfaces of the substrate and eventually on the Al alloy, dissolves the aluminium oxide covering the molten alloy enabling thus direct contact between the liquid alloy and the TiC substrate. The low tensions for the solid/flux and liquid metal/flux interfaces facilitate spontaneous spreading and instantaneous wetting. Meanwhile, the flux is displaced to the lateral periphery of the substrate and to the surface of the liquid. Under the resolution of the scanning electron microscope, microstructural examination of the interfaces did not reveal reaction products. Rapid infiltration of the alloy into TiC/flux compacts, at low temperatures, correlated well with the flux-assisted spreading kinetics observed.     

Coarse-Grained Interaction of a Fluid with a Physically-Patterned Solid Surface: Application to Nanodroplet Wetting

We derive coarse-grained potentials to describe the interaction of a physically adsorbed, fluid-phase atom with a solid surface that is patterned with an array of rectangular or cylindrical pillars. The coarse-grained potentials are used in molecular dynamics simulations to probe the wetting of a Lennard-Jones liquid droplet on various patterned solid surfaces. Our results, which indicate that surface patterning can significantly influence wetting, are in agreement with previous studies.     

Anisotropic wetting of microstructured surfaces as a function of surface chemistry

In order to study the influence of surface chemistry on the wetting of structured surfaces, microstructures consisting of grooves or squares were produced via hot embossing of poly(ethylene-alt-tetrafluoroethylene) ETFE substrates. The structured substrates were modified with polymer brushes, thereby changing their surface functionality and wettability. Water droplets were most strongly pinned to the structure when the surface was moderately hydrophilic, as in the case of poly(4-vinylpyridine) (P4VP) or poly(vinyl(N-methyl-2-pyridone) (PVMP) brush-modified substrates. As a result, the droplet shape was determined by the features of the microstructure. The water contact angles (CA) were considerably higher than on flat surfaces and differed, in the most extreme case, by 37° when measured on grooved substrates, parallel and perpendicular to the grooves. On hydrophobic substrates (pristine ETFE), the same effects were observed but were much less pronounced. On very hydrophilic sampes (those modified with poly(N-methyl-vinylpyridinium) (QP4VP)), the microstructure had no influence on the drop shape. These findings are explained by significant differences in apparent and real contact angles at the relatively smooth edges of the embossed structures. Finally, the highly anisotropic grooved microstructure was combined with a gradient in polymer brush composition and wettability. In the case of a parallel alignment of the gradient direction to the grooves, the directed spreading of water droplets could be observed.     

固体表面润湿性机理及模型

润湿性是固体表面的重要特征之一。人工控制和制备固体表面润湿性已成为研究的热点，而且逐渐被应用于国防、工农业生产和人们日常生活等不同领域。论述了固体表面润湿性的有关理论基础，包括表面张力、表面自由能、润湿过程及其条件。分析了固体表面接触角的Young模型、Wenzel模型和Cassie模型等几种理论模型，以及解释了接触角滞后现象。     

Hyperhydrophilic rough surfaces and imaginary contact angles

The complete wetting of rough surfaces is only poorly understood, since the underlying phenomena can neither be described by the Cassie‐Baxter nor the Wenzel equation. An experimental accessiblility by the sessile drop method is also very limited. The term “superhydrophilicity” was an attempt to understand the wetting of rough surfaces, but a clear definition is still forthcoming, mainly because non‐superhydrophilic surfaces can also display a contact angle of zero. Since the Wilhelmy balance is based on force measurements, it offers a technology for obtaining signals during the whole wetting process. We have obtained evidence that additional forces occur during the complete wetting of rough surfaces and that mathematically contact angles for a hydrophilicity beyond the contact angle of zero can be defined by imaginary numbers. A hydrophilized TPS‐surface obtained by chemical wettability switching from a superhydrophobic surface has been previously characterized by dynamic imaginary contact angles of 20i°–21i° and near‐zero hysteresis. Here an extremely high wetting rate is demonstrated reaching a virtual imaginary contact angle of Θ_V,Adv > 3.5i° in less than 210 ms. For a rough surface displaying imaginary contact angles and extremely high wetting rates we suggest the term hyperhydrophilicity. Although, as will be shown, the physical basis of imaginary contact angles is still unclear, they significantly expand our methodology, the range of wettability measurements and the tools for analyzing rough hydrophilic surfaces. They may also form the basis for a new generation of rationally constructed medicinal surfaces.     

Continuously Tunable Wettability by Using Surface Patterned Shape Memory Polymers with Giant Deformability

Designing smart surfaces with tunable wettability has drawn much attention in recent years for academic research and practical applications. Most of the previous methods to achieve such surfaces demand some particular materials that inherently have special features or complicated structures which are usually not easy to obtain. A novel strategy to achieve such smart surfaces is proposed by using the surface patterned shape memory polymers of chemically crosslinked polycyclooctene which shows a giant deformability of up to ≈730% strain. The smart surfaces possess the ability to continuously tune the wettability by controlling the recovery temperature and/or time. Coating the modified titanium dioxide nanoparticles onto such surfaces renders the surface superhydrophobicity and expands the tunable range of contact angles (CAs). Theoretical calculations of the CAs at different strains via modified Cassie model well explain the tunable wettability behaviors of such smart surfaces.     

Liquid spreading on rough metal surfaces

The influence of surface roughness on the equilibrium spreading of liquids on aluminium and stainless steel surfaces with well-characterized rough machine finishes and a well-defined technique of attaining liquid drop equilibrium has been experimentally studied. The surfaces were prepared under practical conditions, i.e. without rigorous purification or attempting to eliminate anisotropy or microheterogeneities in surface-free energy. Depending on the type of roughness, i.e. spiral-grooved, radial-grooved and porous, the advancing contact angle was in approximate agreement with one of the classical contact angle/surface roughness equations. Capillary channelling along machine grooves profoundly affected the spreading and wetting behaviour and was highly dependent on the orientation and texture of roughness. Although the observed spreading was generally smooth on all surfaces it was probable that microscopic surface asperities produce small-scale non-equilibrium contact line movements and are responsible for the extensive wetting hysteresis during drop retraction.     

Plasma and thermoforming treatments to tune the bio-inspired wettability of polystyrene

This paper shows the effects on wettability of plasma and thermoforming treatments on 14 different polystyrene (PS) surfaces, with a comparison with a lotus leaf. Quantitative roughness analyses of PS surfaces and lotus leaf, by three-dimensional optical profilometer and scanning electron microscope, have been carried out. We characterized the water drop sliding by measuring the contact angle, sliding angle, sliding volume and sliding speed. A relevant correlation between technological treatment, surface roughness parameters and wetting measurements clearly emerges, suggesting the plasma/thermoforming treatment as a process for enhancing the hydrophilic/hydrophobic behavior of PS surfaces. Determination of the static and resistant forces of the drop sliding on the surfaces concludes the paper.     

动态毛吸法测定纤维及粉末料的接触角研究

本文用动态毛吸法研究了表面处理对纤维浸润性的影响,结果表明碳纤维及聚酯纤维表面经冷等离子体氧处理,浸润性有很大的改善,碳纤维约提高四倍,这是因为等离子氧表面处理过程,将含氧基团羧基,羟基及羰基等引入到表面所致。同时从测得的浸润过程表面自由能改变值△γ,计算出水对纤维的接触角,它与采用接触角测定仪倾斜法所测得的结果基本上一致。从所测得的接触角值也可以看出表面经处理之后,浸润性得以改善。如碳纤维由77°降为63°,聚酯纤维由77°降为52°。此外我们还研究了煤粉和玻璃粉体系对水的浸润性,发现水对玻璃粉的浸润性优于煤粉,前者的浸润接触角为47°、后者则为90°,此接触角值也与采用接触角测定仪由静滴法测得水对片材的接触角相一致。由此可见动态毛吸法可以用于研究纤维及粉末体系的浸润性,而且操作简单易行,测试周期短。