Hedonic mediation of the crossmodal correspondence between taste and shape

Crossmodal correspondences between gustatory (taste), olfactory (smell), and flavour stimuli on the one hand and visual attributes on the other have been extensively documented in recent years. For instance, people have been shown to consistently match specific tastes and flavours to particular visual shapes. That said, further research is still needed in order to clarify how and why such correspondences exist. Here, we report a series of four experiments designed to assess what drives people’s matching of visual roundness/angularity to both ‘basic’ taste names and actual tastants. In Experiment 1, crossmodal correspondences between taste names and abstract shapes were assessed. Next, the results were replicated in a larger online study (Experiment 2). Experiment 3 assessed the role of liking in the association between taste words and morphed shapes along the roundness/angularity dimension. In Experiment 4, basic tastants were mapped to the roundness/angularity dimension, while the mediating role of liking for each taste was assessed. Across the 4 experiments, participants consistently matched sweetness to roundness. What is more, people’s liking for a taste (but not their liking for imagined tastes) appeared to influence their shape matching responses. These results are discussed in terms of crossmodal correspondences, and a potential role for hedonics is outlined.     

Crossmodal correspondences between taste and shape,and their implications for product packaging: A review

A growing body of empirical research now demonstrates that people associate different basic tastes and taste words with specific packaging shapes. While it may be obvious that semantic knowledge concerning products, based on the packaging and/or design elements (e.g., typeface, logo, label, images), can guide the taste expectations that consumers generate in relation to a given product, here we demonstrate that there are also more fundamental correspondences that operate even with unfamiliar stimuli. Specifically, shape features (e.g., straight vs. curvy, or symmetrical vs. asymmetrical) have been shown to influence the taste that people naturally associate with a given shape. The evidence suggests that, at least to a certain extent, people match such shape dimensions with tastes on the basis of their common affective connotation. Here, we critically review the literature on these seemingly arbitrary, yet systematic, crossmodal correspondences between tastes and shape features. We suggest that they can inform the design process when it comes to product packages and labels with the aim of conveying taste information more effectively. This review is relevant to those researchers interested in taste-vision correspondences as well as to food marketers, and those designers interested in the communication and influence of taste information.     

Colour and shape of design elements of the packaging labels influence consumer expectations and hedonic judgments of specialty coffee

Packaging plays an important role on attracting the consumers’ attention and creating hedonic and sensory expectations, which may affect actual product experience. The present study aimed at investigating whether the colour and/or shape of design elements of packaging labels would influence sensory and hedonic judgments of specialty coffee by amateur consumers. Participants (n = 174) first evaluated their expectations of coffee acidity and sweetness by looking at the coffee package, and subsequently, their experience of the same attributes when tasting a cup of coffee, in addition to rating their liking and purchase intent. The experiment followed a 2 × 2, between-subject design for label type (green or pink, round or angular), and the same coffee was served to all participants. Multivariate analysis of variance was conducted in order to assess main effects of colour and shape of the design elements of the packaging labels as well as interactions on sensory and hedonic ratings. Both colour and shape significantly affected consumers’ sensory expectations (pre-tasting ratings) regarding the specialty coffee, but they had no significant effect on post-tasting (actual perception) sensory ratings. Interactions between colour × shape were found to affect the hedonic measures. The coffee associated with the congruent labels (i.e., angular/green or the round/pink) received higher liking and purchase intent ratings than the one associated with the incongruent labels (i.e., angular/pink and the round/green). The implications of these results for the design of coffee packaging that convey some functional benefit as well as possible directions for future research are discussed.     

Tasting atmospherics: Taste associations with colour parameters of coffee shop interiors

Coffee is one of the world’s most frequently consumed beverages, and coffee culture is an increasingly popular phenomenon across the world. Atmospheric elements are especially important for the design of coffee shops. However, it is still unclear how the visual atmospherics (e.g., colour scheme, lightness) of coffee shop interiors influence the consumer’s evaluations of coffee shops and their expectations concerning the coffee beverages they serve. The present research was designed to understand the role of one aspect of the visual atmosphere, namely the colour parameters of the interiors of coffee shop, on the consumer evaluation of the coffee shops themselves and on the expected sensory properties of the coffees served there. Ratings of taste expectations, likelihood of visiting, and emotions were evaluated for each of 50 coffee shop images and averaged across 65 participants. The color parameters (L*, a*, b*, saturation) of the coffee shop interior were calculated using digital image analysis. The results demonstrate that more reddish and lighter coloured coffee shop images were associated with the expectation that the coffee shop would serve a sweeter coffee, while more greenish and darker coloured coffee shop images were associated with more sour/bitter/tastier coffee expectations as well as a higher likelihood of visiting. Moreover, emotions, specifically feelings of calmness, mediated the relation between color parameters and taste expectations/likelihood of visiting. Taken together, these results provide evidence on the role of visual atmospherics of coffee shops on consumer evaluations and provide a number of practical implications for the coffee outlets/cafes.     

Assessing the influence of the coffee cup on the multisensory tasting experience

This review summarizes the latest evidence concerning the impact of the colour, shape, texture, weight, and other material properties of the drinking receptacle on the perception of coffee. The colour of the cup, for instance, has been shown to prime notions of sweetness (e.g., pink cup) or acidity (e.g., yellow or green cup) that may carry over to influence the tasting experience. Meanwhile, the shape and surface feel of the drinking vessel have also been shown to exert a profound influence over the perceived aroma/taste of coffee. Given that the various sensory attributes of the drinking vessel can exert such a striking influence over the drinking experience, the challenge, moving forward, is to optimize the design of the receptacle in order to enhance the multisensory tasting experience for the consumer. Given that different styles/varieties of specialty coffee have different dominant/desirable qualities (e.g., acidity/sweetness), in the future, the design of coffee cups may need to be customized for different coffee drinking experiences (e.g., origin or roast), much as seen in the world of fine wine (with different glasses for different grape varieties).     

压榨蔗汁色值若干问题讨论(一)——蔗汁色值与蔗汁中铁含量的关系

研究了不同的甘蔗新鲜度下 ,铁在压榨蔗汁中的溶出量 ,表明了蔗汁中铁的含量与其色值有明显的相关关系。     

When the shape of the glass influences the flavour associated with a coloured beverage: Evidence from consumers in three countries

We report a study designed to investigate the effect of the shape of the glass on colour–flavour associations in 300 participants from the UK, India, and South Korea. Participants viewed online photographs of red, green, yellow, blue, orange, and brown beverages presented in a water, wine, or cocktail glass, and indicated the first flavour or drink that came to mind from a list of 24 flavour options. The results revealed significant cross-cultural differences in terms of the flavour expectations that were elicited by viewing each of the coloured drinks. Furthermore, the crossmodal associations for the green, yellow, and orange drinks were also found to be influenced by the shape of the glass in which the drink was presented. These findings demonstrate how contextual factors (the shape and/or type of glass) can influence the crossmodal associations that exist between colour and flavour across different cultural backgrounds. Our results further highlight the importance of considering the appropriateness of the glassware in which a drink is presented (e.g., in advertising and in any images shown in product packaging).     

Examining the relationship between product package colour and product selection in preschoolers

Research into food liking among children has shown the importance of colour as a variable [Leon, F., Couronne, T., Marcuz, M. C., & Koster, E. P. (1999). Measuring food liking in children: a comparison of non-verbal methods. Food Quality and Preference 10, 93–100; Lavin, J., & Lawless, H. T. (1998). Effects of color and odor on judgments of sweetness among children and adults. Food Quality and Preference 9, 283–289] but there is little work on how children react to colour in the context of packaging and product categorisation. Attractively coloured packaging may serve to influence children’s selection or persuasion in the store [Hutchings, J. B. (2003). Expectations and the food industry: The impact of color and appearance. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers].

The main objective of the study was to determine the role of packaging colour in product selection among preschoolers, by age and gender, across three product categories: cereals, biscuits and drinks. Forty-three preschoolers, 36 girls and 7 boys, aged 3–5-years-old participated in the study. The three product categeories, with logo and brand information obscured, were presented with a range of nine colours. The children were asked to choose one package from each category for themselves, one package from each category for a boy, and one package from each category for a girl. They were then asked why they had chosen the packages and asked about their favourite colour.

The results showed a high correlation between favourite colour and choice of product across the total sample, with lower correlations for individuals. Favourite colours were pink (24%), purple (11.4) yellow and blue (both 9%) and most popular colours were pink (40.9%), followed by purple (15%) and yellow (15%). Correlations were lower when selecting for boys and girls, with younger children more likely to select colours that matched their own preferences.     

Effect of ozonation on the rheological and colour characteristics of hydrocolloid dispersions

The effect of ozonation on the rheological and colour characteristics of guar, carboxyl methyl cellulose (CMC), and pectin dispersions was investigated. Guar 1%, CMC 1% and pectin 2% (w/v) dispersions were ozonated at varying ozone concentrations of 2.4%, 4.0%, 5.6% and 7.8% (w/w) for 3, 5, 7 and 10 min processing times at 20 ± 1.0 °C. Flow and dynamic rheological properties together with Hunter colour parameters (L^*, a^*, b^*) were measured for control and treated samples. Significant differences were observed in the rheological characteristics and colour of all ozonated hydrocolloid dispersion studied. No recovery was observed in the structure breakdown after a 24 h storage period. This study indicates that ozonation has a significant effect on both the rheology and colour of hydrocolloid dispersions and that due attention should be given before incorporating these hydrocolloids in food formulations which are subsequently ozonated in food processing and preservation processes.     

Assessing the shapes and speech sounds that people associate with chocolate samples varying in cocoa content

We report a series of three experiments designed to highlight the reliable crossmodal correspondences that exist between the cocoa content of various commercially-available chocolate products and both visually-presented shapes and nonsense words. The chocolates tested in this study included three kinds of Lindt chocolate and a milk chocolate truffle (‘Koko’ brand from Cadbury). Participants were given paper-based line scales, anchored at either end with either a nonsense word or simple outline shape. They tasted the chocolates and indicated whether their perception of the flavor better matched one or other of the items anchoring the scales by marking the appropriate point along the scale. The results demonstrate that certain chocolates were more strongly associated with angular shapes and ‘sharp’ inflected, high-pitched meaningless words, such as ‘tuki’ and ‘takete’. Specifically, Lindt extra creamy milk chocolate (30% cocoa) and Cadbury’s Koko milk chocolate truffles were both more strongly associated with rounded shapes and softer sounding, lower-pitched pseudo-words, such as ‘maluma’. By contrast, Lindt 70% and 90% cocoa chocolates were more strongly associated with sharper (angular) shapes and sounds, such as ‘takete’. These results demonstrate that the phenomenon of sound symbolism extends beyond the visual modality into the domain of flavor perception where, in particular, speech sounds carry meaning in terms of the taste/flavor of chocolates. These results have implications for the development of novel brand names for new products (such as, in this case, chocolate) that best connote the product’s likely sensory attributes.     

Studying the influence of package shape and colour on consumer expectations of milk desserts using word association and conjoint analysis

Food packaging plays a major role in attracting consumer attention and generating sensory and hedonic expectations; which could affect their product perception and purchase decisions. In the present study word association and conjoint analysis were used to study the influence of package shape and colour on consumer expectations of milk desserts. Six images of milk dessert packages with different colour and shape were presented to 105 consumers, who were asked to complete a word association task and to score their expected liking and willingness to purchase the desserts. Both package shape and colour affected consumers expected liking scores and their sensory expectations regarding the desserts. Consumers associations were mainly related to sensory characteristics. Both methodologies provided an interesting insight on the consumer’s expectations generated by the packages and could be useful in order to design packages which create appropriate expectations regarding the product.     

Effect of postharvest storage conditions on the colour and freshness parameters of raw honey

The influence of temperature (25, 30, 35 and 40 °C) and storage time (up to 62 or 104 days) on colour; hydroxymethyl furfural (HMF) content; and diastase index (ID) of citrus, rosemary, eucalyptus, polyfloral and honeydew honey was evaluated. Decreases in luminosity, whiteness index, hue and chroma with the increase in temperature and storage time were observed to different extents depending on the botanical origin of the honey. At all temperatures, the highest values of chromatic parameters throughout the whole period of storage corresponded to citrus honey. Honeydew honey showed the lowest values and the fewest colour differences. Principal component analysis explained 89% of the variations. PC1 (73%) separated honey types at lower temperatures in terms of colour parameters. PC2 (16%) described variations in HMF and ID in relation to storage conditions. Honey type had a much greater influence on HMF, ID and colour than storage conditions. The evaluated postharvest treatments did not alter the characteristic colour of each type of honey as long as the commercial requirements for freshness parameters were met.     

Freezing-thawing effects on the colour and texture of European catfish flesh

The freezing-thawing effect on the colour of raw fillets and on the texture of cooked fillets of European catfish ( Silurus glanis ) was studied. European catfish coming from two rearing conditions occurring in France were analysed by sensory and instrumental measurements. Fillets of European catfish became lighter, yellower and less bright after a freezing-thawing cycle. An increase in hardness and a decrease in resilience, disintegration and shear resistance were also highlighted after a freezing-thawing cycle. We could make the hypothesis that these variations of colour and texture were due either to mechanical damage or muscle protein denaturation. Fillets also became less juicy after a freezing-thawing cycle because of a loss of water-holding capacity.     

Relationship between the colour and the chemical structure of carotenoid pigments

Several carotenoids were isolated and their colours were ascertained objectively to establish relationships between the chemical structures of those pigments and their actual colours, considering the coordinates of the uniform space CIELAB. The results of this study revealed that the different carotenoids surveyed could be grouped in the a^∗b^∗ plane according to the number of conjugated double bonds. For yellowish carotenoids, it was observed that a^∗ values clearly decreased from those with 11 conjugated double bonds (c.d.b.) to those with 9 c.d.b., although this trend reversed in the case of carotenoids with 7 c.d.b.. In terms of hue (h_ab), it was seen that the decrease in conjugation of the molecules involved a slight rise in h_ab. On the other hand, the aperture of the end rings or the increase in conjugation involved clear increases in hue.     

Effects of water, oil, starch, calcium carbonate and titanium dioxide on the colour and texture of threadfin and hairtail surimi gels

The effects of moisture, oil, starch, calcium carbonate and titanium dioxide on the colour and texture properties of surimi gels were studied. Increasing the moisture or oil contents raised the L * values but reduced the b * values. Calcium carbonate and titanium dioxide increased the L * values, while potato starch decreased the b * values. The addition of oil up to the 8% level affected textural properties, but increasing the oil content while maintaining final moisture content constant could significantly decrease the hardness of surimi gels.     

Examination of the effect of ageing and temperature at rigor on colour stability of lamb meat

A study of factors (ageing period, rigor temperature and vitamin E level) impacting on the colour stability of lamb m. longissimus thoracis et lumborum (LL) during 3 days of simulated retail display was undertaken. The LL were taken from 84 lambs from 3 slaughters. Slices of LL were measured fresh (24 h post-mortem) or after ageing for 5 days in vacuum packaging. The oxy/met ratio (630/580 nm), declined with display time, and increased with increasing temperature at pH 6.0. Redness (a*) values also declined with display time and a reduction in redness values was observed as LL pH at 24 h post-mortem and/or pH at 18 °C increased. There was no effect of ageing period or vitamin E level on the oxy/met ratio or a* values when the vitamin E level averaged 3.76 mg/kg LL. These results suggest that maximising vitamin E levels in lambs and achieving a moderate rate of pH decline will optimise colour stability irrespective of ageing period.     

Evolution of the colour,antioxidant activity and polyphenols in unusually aged Sherry wines

The present paper reports the results of a study monitoring several key analytical parameters in a set of aged samples of vintages from 1999 back to 1935. The analysed parameters were: colour, antioxidant activity, low molecular weight phenolics, index of total polyphenols and SO₂ content.     

Effect of gelatin dip on the oxidative and colour stability of cooked ham and bacon pieces during frozen storage

Summary Samples of cooked ham and bacon were dipped in water or 2, 4 or 6% gelatin solutions. Samples were then packed in oxygen permeable or vacuum packaging film and stored at −18 °C for seven months. Lipid oxidation (TBARS) and colour stability (Hunter a* values) were assessed monthly. The gelatin coating exerted beneficial effects on oxidative and colour stability.     

Effect of ozone processing on the colour,rheological properties and phenolic content of apple juice

Apple juice samples were ozonated with processing variables of ozone concentration (1–4.8% w/w) and processing time (0–10 min). Effects of processing variables on colour values (L, a and b), rheological properties and phenolic content were studied. Significant reductions in these parameters were observed during ozonation. Second order polynomial regression modelling was used to investigate the main effects of ozone concentration and processing time on the changes in the selected quality parameters of ozonated apple juice. Predicted models were found to be significant (p < 0.05) with low standard error and high coefficients of determination (R²).