Individual and environmental factors associated with defecation while lying down in dairy cows

Cows typically defecate while standing. Freestalls are designed to position standing cows such that their feces fall into the alley. Cows sometimes defecate while lying down, increasing the risk that feces contaminate the stall surface. We conducted 2 studies investigating cow-level and environmental factors associated with defecating while recumbent. In experiment 1, we hypothesized that conditions making it more difficult for cows to stand up (including greater age, high body weight, pregnancy, and lameness) would increase the risk of this behavior. We followed 92 cows for 12 d, scanning stalls 5 times/d using live observation. Almost half (48%) of all cows defecated while recumbent at least once; cows that spent more time lying down and that were earlier in gestation were at highest risk. Weight, parity, age, and lameness were not associated with this behavior. In experiment 2, we tested how overstocking influenced the occurrence of defecating while recumbent. We predicted overstocking would increase the occurrence of this behavior, especially when cows were in stalls at more preferred locations. We recorded stall occupancy, displacement attempts, and defecating while recumbent in 4 groups of 36 cows tested at both 100% and 150% lying stall stocking densities for 2 nights each using a crossover design. Overstocking resulted in higher stall use and more displacements, but less lying and fewer perching events. We did not detect any relationship between use of specific stalls or competition and defecating while recumbent. Most recorded displacements were associated with perching. Increased time perching increased the likelihood of defecating while recumbent, perhaps because perching cows were less dominant or more reluctant to stand up once lying down in the stall. Overstocking did not increase defecating while recumbent, likely because cows spent less time lying down. Together, these results indicate that defecating while recumbent can be common, and points to some of the cow-level factors associated with this behavior.     

Neck-rail position in the free stall affects standing behavior and udder and stall cleanliness

This study tested the effect of neck-rail position on stall usage and udder and stall cleanliness. Thirty Holstein lactating cows were tested in groups of 6. Each group was tested with each of 5 neck-rail positions (130, 145, 160, 175, and 190 cm from the rear curb, at a constant height of 125 cm above the bedded surface) for 1 wk, with the order of testing allocated in a 5 × 5 Latin square. When the neck rail was positioned further from the rear curb, cows spent less time standing with their front 2 hooves in the stall (2.2 ± 0.26 h/d at 130 cm vs. 1.7 ± 0.27 h/d at 190 cm, mean ± SE) and more time standing with all 4 hooves in the stall (0.0 ± 0.02 h/d at 130 cm vs. 0.6 ± 0.07 h/d at 190 cm). These effects of neck-rail position tended to be more marked for smaller cows, perhaps because the standing behavior of larger cows was restricted even in the 190-cm treatment. Cows were more likely to defecate and urinate in the stalls when the neck rail was positioned further from the rear curb. Cows using these stalls tended to have dirtier udders and these stalls required more cleaning time (0.4 ± 0.16 min/d at the 130-cm position vs. 1.6 ± 0.35 min/d at the 190-cm position). In summary, positioning the neck rail further from the curb increased the time that cows spent standing fully in the stall. This change in standing behavior is likely beneficial for hoof health, but reduced udder and stall cleanliness.     

Free-stall dimensions: effects on preference and stall usage

In 2 experiments, free-stall dimensions were examined to determine how they affected stall preference, usage, cleanliness, and milk production in Holstein dairy cattle. In experiment 1, stall width (112 or 132 cm) and stall length (229 and 274 cm from curb to wall) were compared in a 2 x 2 factorial arrangement of stall treatments using 15 individually housed, non-lactating animals. Cows showed no clear preference for stall size as measured by lying time. When animals had no choice between stalls, average lying time was higher in the wide stalls than in the narrow stalls (10.8 vs. 9.6+/-0.3 h/24 h). Both length and width affected time spent standing with only the front hooves in the stall; total stall area is best explained by the variation associated with this behavior. In experiment 2, 27 lactating dairy cattle were alternately housed with access to stalls of 106, 116, or 126 cm in width using a cross-over design with exposure to each treatment lasting 3 wk. Animals spent an additional 42 min/24 h lying in stalls measuring 126 cm in width compared with stalls with only 106 cm between partitions. Free-stall width influenced the time spent standing with the front 2 hooves in the stall; animals averaged 58 min/24 h in the widest stalls and 85 min/24 h in the narrowest stalls. The amount of time spent standing with all 4 hooves in the stall tended to be longer in wider stalls, and these stalls were also most likely to become soiled with feces. Stall width did not affect the number of lying events or milk production. In conclusion, animals spent more time lying down, and less time was spent standing with only the front hooves in larger stalls, but larger stalls were also more likely to become soiled.     

Milk yield affects time budget of dairy cows in tie-stalls

Effective selection in breeding programs and improved management has increased the milk production per cow. However, the effects of the increased yield on behavior have not yet been clarified. We investigated the effect of milk yield on the time budget of 29 Finnish Ayrshire cows in the same stage of lactation kept in tie-stalls. The time spent lying, eating, ruminating, lying inactive without ruminating, and lying with the neck muscles relaxed, as well as the milk yield of primiparous and multiparous cows were recorded for 2d. The effects of milk yield and parity on behavior were analyzed with mixed models. The mean milk yield was 38.3 kg (SD 7.8) per day. Higher-yielding cows spent more time ruminating while standing and less time lying than lower-yielding cows. The latency to lie inactive without ruminating after lying down decreased as milk yield increased and it was shorter in primiparous compared with multiparous cows. Multiparous cows ruminated more while lying than primiparous cows. High milk yield cows spent a shorter time lying and they fell asleep (lay with neck relaxed) sooner. The degree of daily milk yield was associated with modifications in behavior and cows with high milk production had less lying time even with free access to lie down in the tie-stall.     

Lying behavior and postpartum health status in grazing dairy cows

Many cows have difficulty making the transition from pregnancy to lactation, as evidenced by the high incidence of disease that occurs in the weeks after calving. Changes in lying behavior can be used as an indicator of illness, yet no work to date has evaluated this relationship in dairy cows on pasture. The objectives of this study were to describe the lying behavior of grazing dairy cows during the first 3 wk after calving and determine the relationships between transition diseases and lying behavior. Our convenience sample included 227 multiparous and 47 primiparous Holstein cows from 6 commercial farms. Cows were recruited as they calved during the spring calving period. Electronic data loggers (Hobo Pendant G Acceleration, Onset Computer Corp., Pocasset, MA) recorded lying behavior at 1-min intervals. Diseases were recorded up to 21 d in milk, and cows were subsequently categorized into 3 health categories: (1) healthy, not lame and had no other signs of clinical (retained placenta, milk fever, metritis, mastitis) or subclinical (ketosis, hypocalcemia) postpartum diseases; (2) lame, identified as being clinically or severely lame with no other signs of clinical or subclinical postpartum disease; and (3) sick, diagnosed as having one or more clinical postpartum diseases (with or without a subclinical disease) but not lame. This last group was further divided into 2 groups: those that were diagnosed with a single clinical health event and those diagnosed with more than one clinical event. Lying behavior differed between primiparous and multiparous cows; primiparous cows divided their lying time into more bouts than did multiparous cows (9.7 ± 0.54 vs. 8.4 ± 0.26 bouts/d) and spent less time lying down than multiparous cows (7.5 ± 0.38 h/d vs. 8.5 ± 0.19 h/d). Lying behavior was also affected by illness; primiparous cows that developed more than one clinical disease, excluding lameness, spent more time lying, and tended to have longer lying bouts in the days following calving compared with healthy cows; multiparous severely lame cows spent more time lying down (1.7 h longer per day) compared with multiparous cows that were nonlame. Clinically lame cows had fewer lying bouts per day and these bouts were of longer duration than healthy nonlame cows. In summary, changes in lying behavior after calving were associated with postpartum health status in grazing dairy cows.     

Assessment of daily activity patterns and biomarkers of pain,inflammation, and stress in lactating dairy cows diagnosed with clinical metritis

The objectives of the present case-control study were to assess (1) daily activity patterns (lying time, number of steps, number of lying bouts, and lying bout duration), and (2) circulating concentrations of biomarkers of pain (substance P), inflammation (haptoglobin), and stress (cortisol) in lactating dairy cows diagnosed with clinical metritis. Lactating dairy cows (n = 200) from 2 commercial dairy herds were enrolled in the present study. Cows diagnosed with clinical metritis (n = 100) at 7 ± 3 d in milk were matched according to lactation and days in milk to cows without clinical metritis (NO-CM; n = 100). On study d 1, clinical metritis was diagnosed (using a Metricheck device, Simcro Tech Ltd., Hamilton, New Zealand) by the presence of watery, reddish, or brownish foul-smelling vaginal discharge, and blood samples were collected for assessment of circulating concentration of substance P, haptoglobin, cortisol, total calcium, β-hydroxybutyrate, and blood cells. In addition, on study d 1 body condition of cows was visually assessed, and activity monitors were placed on the hind leg of a subset of cows (CM, n = 56; CON, n = 56) and were kept until study d 7. Cows showing any other signs of other diseases were not included in the study. Cows with clinical metritis tended to spend more time lying (CM = 628.92 min/d; NO-CM = 591.23 min/d) compared with NO-CM cows. Activity analysis by parity revealed that primiparous cows with clinical metritis spent more time lying compared with primiparous cows without clinical metritis. However, no differences in daily lying time were observed between multiparous cows with and without clinical metritis. Furthermore, cows in the CM group had a higher circulating concentration of substance P (CM = 47.15 pg/mL; NO-CM = 37.73 pg/mL) and haptoglobin (CM = 233.00 µg/mL; NO-CM = 99.98 µg/mL) when compared with NO-CM cows. Cows with clinical metritis had lower body condition score, and a greater proportion of cows in this group had hypocalcemia when compared with cows without clinical metritis. The circulating concentration of leukocytes and erythrocytes were decreased in cows with clinical metritis compared with cows without clinical metritis. Results from this study showed that concentrations of markers of inflammation, stress, pain, and activity were affected in cows diagnosed with clinical metritis; thus, strategies aimed to minimize the negative effects associated with clinical metritis may be required to improve the welfare of dairy cows.     

Bedding on geotextile mattresses: how much is needed to improve cow comfort?

The objective of our study was to evaluate how the amount of sawdust bedding on mattresses affects dairy cattle behavior and preferences. Eleven nonlactating, multiparous cows were housed individually in pens with access to 3 free stalls. Each stall was fitted with a geotextile mattress covered with either 0, 1, or 7.5 kg of kiln-dried sawdust. The experiment began with 7 d of acclimatization to all 3 stalls. Cows were then allowed access to only 1 of the 3 stalls at a time, each for 3 d (restriction phase). At the end of this restriction phase, cows were allowed free access to all 3 stalls for 3 d (free-choice phase). Time spent lying and the number of lying bouts increased significantly with the amount of bedding, from 12.3 +/- 0.53 h lying and 8.5 +/- 0.62 bouts per 24 h on bare mattresses to 13.8 +/- 0.53 h lying and 10.0 +/- 0.62 bouts per 24 h on mattresses with 7.5 kg of sawdust. In addition, the animals spent less time standing with only the front hooves in the stalls when more sawdust was present. When allowed free access to all 3 options, all 11 animals spent a majority of their time lying and standing in the 7.5-kg option. In conclusion, cows preferred mattresses bedded with 7.5 kg of sawdust, on which they spent more time lying down and less time standing with only the front hooves in stalls. These results indicate that more sawdust bedding improves cow comfort in stalls with geotextile mattresses.     

Associations of freestall design and cleanliness with cow lying behavior,hygiene, lameness,and risk of high somatic cell count

The objective of this study was to investigate associations of freestall design and cleanliness with cow lying behavior, hygiene, lameness, and risk of new high somatic cell count (SCC). Cows from 18 commercial freestall dairy herds (22 ± 15 cows/farm; mean ± SD) in Ontario, Canada, were enrolled in a longitudinal study. Four hundred focal cows that were <120 d in milk, had no mastitis treatment in the last 3 mo, and had an SCC <100,000 cells/mL at their most recent milk test were selected for the study. Data on SCC were collected through Dairy Herd Improvement Association milk testing (at ~5-wk intervals). Each farm was visited 5 ± 3 d (mean ± SD) after each milk test until 3 tests were completed (~105 d), for a total of 3 observation periods per cow. Elevated SCC was used as an indicator of subclinical mastitis. An incident of new high SCC was defined as a cow having SCC >200,000 cells/mL at the end of an observation period, when SCC was <100,000 cells/mL at the beginning of that period. Lying behavior was recorded for 6 d after each milk sampling, using electronic data loggers. Cows were scored during each period for lameness (5-point scale, with scores ≥3 = lame), body condition score (BCS; 5-point scale; 1 = thin to 5 = fat), and hygiene (4-point scale). Stall cleanliness was assessed during each period with a 1.20 × 1.65-m metal grid, containing 88 squares. The grid was centered between stall partitions of every tenth stall on each farm, and the squares containing visible urine or fecal matter (or both) were counted. Cow lying time averaged 10.9 ± 1.9 h/d. On average, cows with low BCS (≤2.5) spent 37 ± 16.6 min/d less time lying down than high-BCS cows (≥4.0). On average, cows tended to spend 36 ± 18.3 min/d more time lying down in deep-bedded versus mattress-based stalls. Mean proportion of soiled squares per stall was 20.1 ± 0.50%. Across farms, cow lying time decreased as the proportion of soiled squares per stall increased. A difference in daily lying time of ~80 more min/d was modeled for cows housed in barns with the cleanest stalls compared with those with the dirtiest stalls. Higher neck rail height [for every 1 SD (10 cm) increase] increased the odds (odds ratio = 1.5) of cows having a dirty upper leg–flank and udder. The odds of a cow having a dirty upper leg–flank, udder, and lower legs were 1.5, 2.0, and 1.9 times greater, respectively, for cows housed with dirtier stalls. Also, cows housed on farms with dirtier stalls had 1.3 times greater odds of being lame at the time of observation. Over the study period, 50 new high-SCC cases were detected, resulting in an incidence rate of 0.45 cases of new high SCC per cow-year at risk. No measured factors were detected to be associated with risk of a new high SCC. Overall, our results confirm that cows lie down longer in cleaner and more comfortable environments. Further, these results highlight the need for improved stall cleanliness to optimize lying time and potentially reduce lameness.     

Effect of free stall surface on daily activity patterns in dairy cows with relevance to lameness prevalence

Differences in behavior of nonlame cows, slightly lame cows, and moderately lame cows in 6 free stall barns with sand bedding (SAND) vs. 6 free stall barns with rubber-crumb geotextile mattress surfaces (MAT) were documented in Wisconsin dairy herds. All lactating cows in the 12 herds were observed and given a locomotion score based on a 4-point scale: 1 = nonlame, 2 = slightly lame, 3 = moderately lame, and 4 = severely lame. Herd least square means +/-SE for prevalence of clinical lameness (locomotion scores = 3 and 4) were 11.1 vs. 24.0 +/- 1.7% for herds using SAND vs. MAT surfaces, respectively. Subsets of 10 cows per herd with locomotion scores of 1 to 3 were observed via video cameras for 24-h periods. Cows in MAT herds spent more time standing in free stalls per day than cows in SAND herds. Differences in standing times were 0.73 h/d for cows that were not lame, 2.32 h/d for cows that were slightly lame, and 4.31 h/d for cows that were moderately lame in MAT herds compared with equivalent cows in SAND herds. In MAT herds, the increase in time spent standing in the stall in moderately lame cows was associated with a significant reduction in stall use sessions per day, which impacted daily lying time. Although cause and effect are not clear, these findings have implications for housing, comfort, and care of cows in dairy herds with different types of free stall surfaces.     

Effects of three types of free-stall surfaces on preferences and stall usage by dairy cows

One important criterion in choosing appropriate housing systems for dairy cattle is that the freestall provides a comfortable surface for the cow. This paper describes two experiments testing the effects of commonly used lying surfaces on stall preference and stall usage by Holstein cows. In both experiments, 12 cows were housed individually in separate pens. Each pen contained three free stalls with a different surface: deep-bedded sawdust, deep-bedded sand, and a geotextile mattress covered with 2 to 3 cm of sawdust. The animals were restricted to each surface in turn, in a random order for either 2 (Experiment 1) or 3 d (Experiment 2). Both before and after this restriction phase, the animals were allowed access to all three surfaces, and preference was determined, based on lying times. Of the 12 cows used in Experiment 1, 10 preferred sawdust before and nine after the restriction phase. During the restriction phase, average lying times and number of lying events during the restriction phase were significantly lower for the sand-bedded stalls (P < or = 0.05), and standing times were higher on mattresses (P < or = 0.05), compared with sawdust. Although these cows had some experience with all three surfaces during the experiment, they had been housed in sawdust-bedded stalls during their previous lactation. Cows used in Experiment 2 had spent their previous lactation in sand bedded stalls. In this experiment, about half the cows preferred sand and half sawdust, after the restriction phase. During the restriction phase of experiment, lying times and number of lying events were lower, and standing times were higher when the animals were restricted to the mattresses compared to either sand or sawdust (P < or = 0.05). These results indicate that (1) free stall surface can affect both stall preferences and stall usage, and (2) mattresses are less preferred.     

Effects of pegbovigrastim administration on periparturient diseases,milk production,and reproductive performance of Holstein cows

The aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of treating Holstein cows with pegbovigrastim on periparturient diseases, milk production, and reproductive performance while exploring the mode of action of an immunomodulatory protein. Cows were randomly allocated to 1 of 2 treatments, untreated control (CTR, n = 423) and pegbovigrastim (PEG, n = 417). At 7 d from the anticipated calving date (d ?7), cows allocated to PEG received a subcutaneous injection of 15 mg of pegylated recombinant bovine granulocyte colony stimulating factor (pegbovigrastim injection, Imrestor, Elanco Animal Health, Greenfield, IN). A second injection was administered within 24 h after calving (d 0). Blood samples were obtained from a subset of cows (CTR, n = 103; PEG, n = 102) at ?7 and 0, 3, 7, and 14 d relative to parturition. Samples were used for hemogram and quantification of haptoglobin, nonesterified fatty acids, β-hydroxybutyrate, and trace and macro minerals. Vaginal cytobrush was performed on the same subset cows at d 0, 7, and 14 to assess the relative neutrophil count. Additionally, colostrum samples were collected to measure IgG, IgM, IgA, and lactoferrin concentrations. Postpartum disease occurrence was recorded from calving until 30 d in milk (DIM). Weekly milk yield was recorded for the first 12 wk after calving. Cows treated with PEG had a 3- to 4-fold increase in circulating polymorphonuclear leukocyte, lymphocyte, and monocyte numbers, with a peak at 3 d after treatment followed by a gradual decline, but the counts remained significantly greater compared with CTR at 14 DIM. The administration of PEG did not affect the incidence of clinical and subclinical mastitis, retained fetal membranes, metritis, puerperal metritis, and endometritis. Primiparous cows treated with PEG tended to have lower odds of developing hyperketonemia than CTR [odds ratio (OR) = 0.57, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.23 to 1.42]. Cows treated with PEG had higher odds of being diagnosed with lameness within 30 DIM compared with CTR (OR = 1.79, 95% CI = 1.16 to 2.76); however, we found no significant differences by 60 DIM. Treatment with PEG increased the odds of displaced abomasum (OR = 8.27, 95% CI = 1.02 to 66.6). Cows treated with PEG had higher odds of being diagnosed with 1 or more clinical diseases compared with CTR cows (OR = 1.39, 95% CI = 1.02 to 1.90). We observed no differences in linear scores or milk composition between treatments. Furthermore, primiparous cows treated with PEG produced more milk than CTR primiparous cows during the first 12 wk postpartum (PEG = 37.51 ± 0.66; CTR = 35.91 ± 0.65 kg), but no differences were observed on energy-corrected milk. Treatment did not alter reproductive performance; additionally, cows diagnosed with metritis or puerperal metritis and treated with PEG tended to have higher proportion of neutrophils in the vaginal mucosa when compared with CTR metritic cows. Although PEG treatment increased circulating polymorphonuclear leukocyte, monocyte, and lymphocyte numbers, as expected, it was detrimental to cow health because it increased morbidity.     

Effect of softer flooring in tie stalls on resting behavior and leg injuries of lactating cows

To test the advantages of softer flooring in tie stalls, we compared the behavior and injuries of dairy cows housed in tie stalls with either soft rubber mats (n = 12) or concrete flooring (n = 12), both lightly covered with straw. Data were collected for 112 d beginning at 14 DIM (±4 d). Cows’ general activity was observed continuously for 24 h every 28 d. Behavior was also scored by a scan sampling technique every 14 d such that each cow was observed for a period of 3 min every 12 min. We scored the occurrence of leg lesions and other injuries every 7 d throughout the study. Cows on rubber mats had shorter bouts of lying but the frequency of bouts was higher, leading them to tend to spend more time lying compared with cows housed on concrete. Cows on concrete spent more time standing idle, but there was no difference in the time spent eating. There was no effect of stall flooring on the number of minor abrasions to the legs and body. There was a significantly higher incidence of swelling of the carpus joints for cows housed on concrete. Cows housed on soft rubber flooring appeared to be less hesitant to change posture from lying to standing (and vice versa), and as a result changed posture more frequently and spent more time lying than cows on concrete flooring. The decreased incidence of swelling of the carpus joint for cows on soft rubber mats may have important long-term effects in preventing a variety of leg problems.     

Factors affecting stall use for different freestall bases

The objective of this study was to compare stall use (stall occupancy and cow position) by barn side for factors affecting stall use. A closed circuit television system recorded stall use four times per day for a 9-mo period starting May 9, 2001. Six factors were analyzed: stall base, distance to water, stall location within stall base section, stall location within barn, inside barn temperature, and length of time cows were exposed to stall bases. Two barn sides with different stocking densities were analyzed: low (66%), with cows milked by robotic milker; and high (100%), with cows milked 2X in parlor. Six stall base types were tested: two mattresses, a waterbed, a rubber mat, concrete, and sand (high side only). The base types were grouped 3 to 7 stalls/section and randomly placed in each row. Cows spent more time in mattress-based stalls, but the highest percentage lying was in sand-based stalls. The following significant stall occupancy percentages were found: sand had the highest percentage of cows lying on the high stocking density side (69%), followed by mattress type 1 (65%) > mattress type 2 (57%) > waterbed (45%) > rubber mat (33%) > concrete (23%). Mattress type 1 had the highest percentage stalls occupied (88%), followed by mattress type 2 (84%) > sand (79%) > soft rubber mat (65%) > waterbed (62%) > concrete (39%). On the low stocking rate side, mattress type 1 had the highest percentage cows lying (45%) and occupied (59.6%), followed by mattress type 2 > waterbed > soft rubber mat > concrete. Cow lying and stalls occupied percentages were highest for stalls 1) not at the end of a section, and 2) on the outside row, and varied by base type for time cows exposed to stalls and inside barn temperature. Lying and occupied percentages were different for different mattress types. The percentage of stalls with cows standing was higher for mat and mattress-based stalls. Results show mattress type 1 and sand to be superior and rubber mats and concrete inferior stall bases.     

The stall-design paradox: Neck rails increase lameness but improve udder and stall hygiene

Housing conditions for dairy cows are thought to affect lameness, but almost no experimental work has addressed this link. The aim was to assess the effect of one feature of free-stall design, the position of the neck rail, testing the prediction that cows will be more likely to become lame if using pens with the neck rail positioned such that it prevents standing fully inside the stall. Cows (n = 32) were housed in 8 pens. Treatments were tested using a crossover design; treatments were allocated alternately to pens at the beginning of the experiment and switched halfway through the 10-wk experiment. Cows spent 27 ± 3 min/d standing with all 4 feet in stalls with less restrictive neck rails. In contrast, cows averaged just 1 ± 3 min/d when the neck rail was positioned restrictively. Cows spent less time standing with only the front 2 feet in the stall with less restrictive neck rails (33 vs. 49 ± 6 min/d). Gait scores improved when cows were kept in the less restrictive stalls and worsened when cows were kept in pens with the restrictive neck rail (median score 2.5 vs. 3.5 after 5 wk on treatment). Of 13 new cases of lameness, 11 occurred in pens with the restrictive neck-rail position. Similarly, of the 16 new cases of sole lesions, 15 occurred during the period when cows were housed in pens with a restrictive neck rail. Stalls with the neck rail positioned less restrictively had higher contamination scores than stalls with the restrictive neck rails (3.7 vs. 0.4 ± 0.2), and cows using those stalls had dirtier udders and longer teat-cleaning times (8.3 vs. 7.0 ± 0.2 min for 12 cows). This study provides the first experimental evidence that aspects of stall design can reduce the risk of lameness and hoof disease. The results illustrated that changes in design that resulted in improvements in cow comfort and hoof health came at the expense of cow and stall cleanliness.     

Housing tiestall dairy cows in deep-bedded pens during an 8-week dry period: Effects on lying time,lying postures,and rising and lying-down behaviors

Dairy cow lying behavior is useful in determining the cow's level of welfare, as well as in determining how her environment may affect her comfort and ease of movement. In tiestall systems, cows usually remain in a stall for the duration of their lactation. The dry period offers a unique opportunity to provide alternative housing to the cow with minimal effects on farm housing and management. Our objective was to determine whether housing tiestall cows in deep-bedded pens over an 8-wk dry period altered lying time, lying and rising ability, or lying postures. At dry-off, 20 cows, paired by parity and calving date, were randomly assigned to a deep-bedded loose pen (LP) or a tiestall (TS). Leg-mounted pedometers measured lying time. Rising and lying ability were measured using 6 events of rising and lying from 24-h video recordings taken once a week per cow. Sequenced images (1/min) from the 24-h recordings were used to document lying postures and locations for each cow. Data were analyzed for the early (first week of dry-off), mid, and late (week before calving) terms of the dry period. Lying time did not differ between LP and TS but was numerically higher for LP than TS cows (14.4 vs. 13.0 h/d, respectively). Contact with stall or pen confines when lying down was 5 times higher in TS than LP. The increased contact, coupled with a higher occurrence of hindquarter shifting in the late term, led to higher overall abnormal lying behaviors in TS. Contact with the stall upon rising increased in the late term for TS cows. Cows housed in loose pens also exhibited greater variation in hind-leg postures, keeping legs tucked 20% less often in favor of alternative postures. Stall hardware (e.g., tie rail, dividers) may have affected the ease of transition between lying and standing, leading to higher levels of contact with the stall. Loose-pen cows are able to assume more postures than TS cows when provided more space, possibly allowing them to orient themselves in ways that provide greater comfort. Lying surface in the deep-bedded loose pen may ease the cow's lying-down and rising movements and lead to the higher lying time found with LP cows. Overall, aspects of the stall largely contributed to differences in lying behaviors, warranting further study into whether freestall systems would yield similar outcomes. Improving our concept of ease of movement related to lying and quality of rest in dairy cows, through evaluating lying behaviors in different housing systems, allows for better recommendations on viable alternative housing options.     

Brisket boards reduce freestall use

We examined how the presence of a brisket board influenced cow preference, stall use, and position within the stall. When given a choice between stalls with or without a brisket board, 15 nonlactating cows spent 68% of their time lying in the stalls without a brisket board, indicating that they preferred this option. When 13 cows had access to either stalls with a brisket board or ones without, they spent, on average, 1.2 h/d more time lying down in stalls without a brisket board. Resting cows positioned themselves relatively forward in the stalls in 98 ± 5% (mean ± SE) of lying bouts when the brisket board was absent, compared with 67 ± 5% of bouts when the board was present. Longer cows were more likely than shorter cows to move forward in the stalls without a brisket board. Cows also had longer lying bouts in stalls without the brisket board (absent: 1.7 ± 0.08; present: 1.5 ± 0.08 h/bout). Although it seems likely that the brisket board helps keep stalls clean by positioning cows closer to the curb, our results indicate that brisket boards also make stalls less comfortable for cows. Stall features designed to reduce stall maintenance may compromise cow comfort. We suggest that new approaches to cow housing are now required.     

Prepartum behavior and dry matter intake identify dairy cows at risk for metritis

Metritis is a disease of particular concern after calving because of its profound negative effects on the reproductive performance of dairy cows. Cows at risk for metritis have shorter feeding times in the days before calving but prepartum dry matter intake (DMI) and water intake may also be useful in identifying cows at risk for this disease. Feeding, drinking, and intake measures may also be affected by social interactions among group-housed cows. The objective of this study, therefore, was to measure intake, feeding, drinking, and social behavior to determine which measures could identify cows at risk for metritis after calving. Feeding and drinking behavior and intake measures were collected from 101 Holstein dairy cows from 2 wk before until 3 wk after calving using an electronic monitoring system. Social behavior at the feed bunk was assessed from video recordings. Metritis severity was diagnosed based on daily rectal body temperature as well as condition of vaginal discharge that was assessed every 3 d after calving until d +21. In this study, 12% of cows were classified as severely metritic and 27% as mildly metritic. Prepartum feeding time and DMI were best able to identify cows at risk for metritis. Cows that developed severe metritis spent less time feeding and consumed less feed compared with healthy cows beginning 2 wk before the observation of clinical signs of infection. For every 10-min decrease in average daily feeding time during the week before calving, the odds of severe metritis increased by 1.72, and for every 1-kg decrease in DMI during this period, cows were nearly 3 times more likely to be diagnosed with this disorder. During the week before calving, cows that were later diagnosed with severe metritis had lower DMI and feeding times during the hours following fresh feed delivery. During this period these cows also engaged in fewer aggressive interactions at the feed bins compared with cows that remained healthy. This research is the first to show that social behavior may play an important role in transition cow health. Research is now required to determine how management should be changed to reduce or prevent illness in transition dairy cows.     

Improving stall design: use of 3-D kinematics to measure space use by dairy cows when lying down

Uncomfortable stalls reduce the time cows spend resting and are a risk factor for lameness. Although recommendations for stall dimensions are available, little research supports these recommendations. In this study, kinematic techniques were used to provide the first accurate measures of space used by Holstein dairy cows during lying-down movements in an open space and in a free stall. Cows (n=5, mean parity 3.2 +/- 1.0, body weight=607 +/- 21 kg) used up to 300 cm of longitudinal space when lying down, more than is typically provided by current industry recommendations for stall length. Cows used up to 109 cm of lateral space (180% of hip width), an estimate that is within current recommendations for stall width. During the lying-down movement, maximal lateral displacements at the hip occurred in two vertical zones: one between 95 and 135 cm, and the second less than 50 cm above the lying surface. Maximal longitudinal displacements of the nose were clustered 10 to 30 cm above the surface. These heights should be taken into account when designing and positioning stall partitions. Maximum instantaneous velocity of body markers approached 220 cm/s, indicating that cows can contact inappropriately placed stall partitions and the lying surface with considerable force. Kinematic techniques are promising ways of assessing spatial requirements of cattle to improve stall design. Further work is required to assess a wider range of cow sizes and stall configurations.     

Effects of metritis treatment strategies on health,behavior, reproductive,and productive responses of Holstein cows

Our objectives were to compare the effects of ceftiofur crystalline free acid (CCFA) and ampicillin trihydrate (AMP) treatments of cows diagnosed with metritis on uterine health, behavior, reproductive, and productive responses. A controlled randomized clinical trial was designed. Metritis was defined as vaginal discharge (VD) = 5 (fetid, watery, red/brown) within 21 d in milk (DIM) and rectal temperature (RT) <39.5°C, whereas VD = 5 and RT ≥39.5°C was defined as puerperal metritis. On the day of diagnosis (d 0), cows were paired by parity and severity of metritis (metritis vs. puerperal metritis) and assigned randomly to the AMP and CCFA treatments. Cows enrolled in the AMP (n = 308) treatment were moved to a nonsalable-milk pen, where they were treated once daily for 5 d, and were moved back to their original pen 72 h after the last treatment (d 7). Cows enrolled in the CCFA (n = 310) treatment remained in their original pen and received 2 treatments of CCFA, 72 h apart. Rectal temperature was measured daily from d 0 to 6 and on d 11. Vaginal discharge was evaluated on d 4, 6, and 11 to assess cure. Cure was defined as the absence of treatment with additional antimicrobial before experiment d 11, VD <5, and RT <39.5°C. Cows were examined at 28 ± 3 DIM for purulent VD (PVD) and at 35 ± 3 DIM for cytological endometritis. Pregnancy was diagnosed at 40 ± 3 and 60 ± 7 d after first and second artificial inseminations. Cure of metritis did not differ between treatments on d 11 (AMP = 64.6 ± 3.1, CCFA = 63.5 ± 3.1%). Cows treated with AMP had greater RT from experiment d 1 to 6 compared with cows treated with CCFA (AMP = 39.1 ± 0.02, CCFA = 39.0 ± 0.02°C). Cows in the AMP treatment had greater prevalence of PVD at 28 ± 3 DIM (AMP = 82.6 ± 2.3, CCFA = 74.4 ± 2.7%) and tended to have greater prevalence of cytological endometritis at 35 ± 3 DIM (AMP = 77.8 ± 6.2 vs. CCFA = 61.7 ± 7.5%) than CCFA-treated cows. Treatment did not affect the hazard of pregnancy among multiparous cows; however, among primiparous cows, CCFA treatment reduced the hazard of pregnancy and increased the median days to pregnancy (AMP = 145 vs. CCFA = 169 d). Finally, average daily milk yield up to 14 wk postpartum was not affected by treatment (AMP = 38.0 ± 0.4, CCFA = 37.5 ± 0.4 kg). We conclude from the current experiment that CCFA was more effective in reducing RT and improving uterine health of metritic cows; however, the improved hazard of pregnancy of primiparous cows treated with AMP is important and warrants further investigation.     

Associations between cow hygiene, hock injuries, and free stall usage on US dairy farms

This cross-sectional study evaluated cow comfort measures in free stall dairies across the United States as part of the National Animal Health Monitoring System's Dairy 2007 study. The study was conducted in 17 states and evaluations were completed between March 5 and September 5, 2007. Assessors recorded hygiene and hock scores, number of cows housed in the pen, the number of cows standing with only the front feet in a stall, standing fully in a stall, and lying in a stall. Facility design measures included bedding type, bedding quantity, stall length and width, presence of a neck rail or brisket locator, and relevant distances from the rear and bed of the stall. Of the 491 operations that completed the cow comfort assessment, 297 had Holstein cows housed in free stalls and were included in this analysis. Negative binomial models were constructed to evaluate the following outcomes: the number of cows that were very dirty, had severe hock injuries, stood with front feet in the stall, stood with all feet in the stall, and were lying in the stall. Hygiene was better on farms that did not tail dock cows compared with those that did (5.7 vs. 8.8% were dirty) and on farms located in the study's west region compared with those located in the east region (5.2 vs. 9.7% were dirty). Severe hock injuries were less common on farms in the west than those in the east (0.5 vs. 4.1%). In addition, severe hock injuries were less common on farms that used dirt as a stall base or sand as bedding compared with farms that did not. A higher percentage of cows was standing with front feet in the stall at higher ambient temperatures (incidence rate ratio = 1.016) and as time since feeding increased (incidence rate ratio = 1.030). A lower percentage of cows were standing with front feet in the stall when the stalls were shorter and when there were fewer cows per stall. Standing fully in a stall was performed by a higher percentage of cows during the summer than during the spring (13.6 vs. 8.1%), when cows were provided free stalls with rubber mats or mattresses, and as the distance from the rear curb to neck rail increased. A higher percentage of cows were lying in a stall when sand bedding was used, when bedding was added more frequently, and during the spring months. Results of this national survey indicate that tail docking provides no benefit to cow hygiene and that stall base and bedding are key factors influencing hock injuries and stall usage on US free stall dairy farms.