Elements of the Socratic method: V. Self-improvement.

The Socratic method includes the use of systematic questioning, inductive reasoning, universal definitions, and a disavowal of knowledge. The present article describes a focus on self-improvement that often guides the clinical application of the Socratic method. Self-improvement is based on three general goals: self-knowledge, self-acceptance, and self-regulation. Each of these goals is discussed in terms of the benefits it provides the client, obstacles that prevent or hinder its development, and the process of improving it through psychotherapy. The focus on self-improvement in psychotherapy is clarified through several brief case examples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elements of the Socratic method: II. Inductive reasoning.

The Socratic method uses systematic questioning and inductive reasoning to help clients derive universal definitions. In psychotherapy, inductive reasoning can be based on enumerative generalizations, analogical comparisons, and eliminative causal reasoning. Enumerative generalizations use pattern identification to support a conclusion about an entire group of events. Analogical comparisons help clients transfer knowledge from familiar to novel situations. Eliminative causal reasoning involves manipulating environmental conditions to examine possible causes of specific problematic events. After a probable cause has been identified, it can be modified through treatment. The clinical utility and fallacies of logical reasoning are discussed as they apply to each of the 3 forms of inductive reasoning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elements of the Socratic method: I. Systematic questioning.

Describes the use of systematic questioning (SQ), one of the elements of the Socratic method (SM), in terms of its format, content, and process. The other 2 elements of SM are inductive reasoning and universal definitions. Although many psychotherapists allude to the SM, most refer only to the questioning style and few describe the process in adequate detail. An attempt is made to provide an intermediate level of structure so as to facilitate a shaping process during the interview. SQ involves a complex interplay of question format, content, and process issues. The format of SQ emphasizes higher level cognitive processes, the content focuses on developing independent problem-solving skills in the client, and the process emphasizes a collaborative interaction between therapist and client. SQ can be used to facilitate self-initiated discovery, helping clients realize the answers they already possess. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elements of the Socratic method: IV. Disavowal of knowledge.

Describes how the Socratic method can be used in combination with most forms of psychotherapy. It is the disavowal of knowledge as a general attitude that underlies the effective use of the Socratic method. This refers to a tendency to view most information as made up of tentative beliefs and personal opinions rather than objective facts. Disavowal of knowledge by the client reduces inadequately justified beliefs, stimulates a search for new information, and facilitates critical thinking by the client. Likewise, disavowal of knowledge by the therapist promotes intellectual modesty in sessions, ensures a genuine desire for learning by the therapist, and encourages collaborative empiricism. When the therapist models skepticism and willingness to search for answers, the client develops an attitude characterized by an openness to learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elements of the Socratic method: VI. Promoting virtue in everyday life.

The Socratic method in psychotherapy includes a systematic series of questions designed to help clients confront broad life issues, respect their lack of knowledge, and make philosophical changes in their approach to life through therapeutic dialog. The Socratic method also helps clients explore aspects of virtue and vice as related to their current psychological problems and life goals. The cardinal virtues of wisdom, courage, moderation, justice, and piety are discussed as they pertain to contemporary psychotherapy. By evaluating virtues in general as well as in specific terms, clients can make life changes in their attitudes and behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Programmed learning and the Socratic dialogue.

2 modes of presentation of a learning sequence, the Socratic method and a programed adaptation, are specified and paralleled in a chart for comparison purposes. The programed adaptation was tested by administering it, in booklet form, to 32 psychology undergraduates. On the immediate criterion test, 17 were able correctly to present the geometric theorem. A revised program was administered to an equivalent group of 33 students. "27 were able correctly to present the geometric theorem on the immediate criterion test… . It is clear that programmed instruction is similar to the Socratic dialogue, but in its differences lies the potential for widespread and enduring changes in the educational enterprise." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Programmed learning and the Socratic dialogue: A critical review.

"As a mathematician I have several comments to make regarding Cohen's (1962) paper [see 37: 7133]. The comments point out (a) omissions in the material presented, (b) the relevance of prior portions of Plato's Meno to Cohen's discussion of the Socratic method and programmed learning, and (c) extensions of Cohen's work which would be of increased interest in the teaching of mathematics." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Journal quality: Problems with definitions.

J. A. Meacham (see record 1985-27733-001) has recommended that journal size be considered in determining estimates of journal quality and that textbook citations of journal publications be used in rankings that may guide decisions about tenure and promotion. However, the ranker may not know how to define journal size or where to look for appropriate citations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Learning considered within a cultural context: Confucian and Socratic approaches.

A Confiician-Socratic framework is used to analyze culture's influence on academic learning. Socrates, a Western exemplar, valued private and public questioning of widely accepted knowledge and expected students to evaluate others' beliefs and to generate and express their own hypotheses. Confucius, an Eastern exemplar, valued effortful, respectful, and pragmatic acquisition of essential knowledge as well as behavioral reform. Expressions of these approaches in modern postsecondary contexts are discussed, as are the effects these approaches may have for students who either fit or do not fit the cultural ideal. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Inference in inconsistency reduction: New evidence on the "Socratic effect."

Examined the cognitive processes underlying the "Socratic effect" shown by 96 undergraduates in reporting logically related beliefs. Predictions concerning latencies of responses and inconsistencies among beliefs were based on an assumed asymmetrical inference process. By manipulating the order in which related beliefs were initially reported (syllogistic vs nonsyllogistic order), a clustering vs nonclustering grouping of related items in a set, and the time interval between sessions (5 min vs 2 days), partial support for the predictions was obtained. The magnitude of the Socratic effect over sessions varied significantly as a function of grouping, delay of retest, and syllogism set. Contrary to expectation, the order in which beliefs were reported had no main effect on initial inconsistency among beliefs. (11 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On the importance of operational definitions: A comment on Hayden.

Hayden's (1987) article concerning the merits of various "hypothesis-testing strategies" is critiqued on the grounds that he has not adequately defended the use of a "Level-4 concept" (Underwood, 1957). More parsimonious explanations for his result are developed and presented at a lower level of abstraction. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The shifting definitions of acquiescence.

Asserts that the P.M. Bentler, D.N. Jackson, and S. Messick (see record 1972-21017-001) rebuttal is not responsive to the criticisms leveled earlier. The shifting over the years in the definition of acquiescence and in the kinds of evidence used to bolster the acquiescence interpretation is noted. In particular, it is noted tht highly specific and replicable evidence is required to support the presently advanced hypothesis that acceptance acquiescence importantly influences assessment procedures. The Bentler, et al., view that any evidence of response inconsistency is evidence for their "distinct species of acquiescence" is not accepted. (l8 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Subgroup validities: Differential definitions and differential prediction.

Argues that J. E. Hunter and F. L. Schmidt (see record 1979-22562-001) have posited population definitions of single-group and differential validity that are inconsistent with accepted sample definitions, and that single-group validity is theoretically untestable. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Clinicians' definitions of ethnically sensitive therapy.

A survey of 150 nonminority psychologists and social workers who provide clinical services in multiethnic urban institutional settings was conducted to explore how they define ethnically sensitive therapy. Underlying the investigation was the assumption that how clinicians define ethnically sensitive therapy reflects their attitudes and influences the efforts they make to operationalize their definition in therapy. Results show that clinicians' definitions fall along a continuum with four overlapping dimensions that emphasize (a) being aware of the existence of differences, (b) having knowledge of the client's culture, (c) distinguishing between culture and pathology in assessment, and (d) taking culture into account in therapy. The dimensions may reflect a developmental process in how clinicians arrive at conceptualizations of ethnically sensitive therapy that influence their behaviors in the treatment encounter. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Factor analytic definitions of vocational motivation.

3 self-report inventories pertaining to vocational motivation, the Occupational Attitude Rating Scales, the Work Satisfaction Questionnaire and the Job Incentive Rankings, were administered to students in an introductory course in psychology. The 11 variables of the combined scales were subjected to a factor analysis. "These factors appeared to provide a comprehensive survey of the dimensions of vocational motivation usually mentioned in theories of occupational choice and vocational adjustment." From Psyc Abstracts 36:05:5LH30C. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The many definitions of test bias.

Argues that the definition of test bias has many widely disparate aspects stemming from different universes of discourse. The status of each of these is reviewed. It is suggested that all the various aspects of test bias be kept in mind so that the risk of losing perspective when one operational definition is settled on is lessened. The concept, being a public one, cannot encompass all the definitions. Research on these issues is some of the more exciting and significant being done today, but confusion over which is the real issue is unnecessary because they are all the real issue. (24 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expression of superordinates in children's word definitions.

This study investigated developmental changes in the expression of superordinates in children's word definitions. Children in Grades 1, 3, and 5 attempted to define words from 3 parts of speech (i.e., nouns, verbs, and adjectives) and 4 morphologically defined word types (i.e., compound, root, inflected, and derived words). Superordination increased significantly and changed qualitatively with age, but across grades children produced greater proportions of superordinates for nouns than adjectives and verbs, and for compound and root words than inflected and derived words. These findings may be accounted for by increases in the size or changes in the organization of the mental lexicon with grade, children's increasing awareness that superordinates are conventionally used in definitions, and the differential organization of concepts in the mental lexicon for different kinds of words. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Concreteness and imagery effects in the written composition of definitions.

In 2 experiments, undergraduates composed written definitions of concrete and abstract nouns that were matched for frequency of usage and meaningfulness. Across both experiments, definitions of concrete words exhibited higher ratings for quality, greater length in words, shorter latencies, and more self-reports of an imagery strategy. Definitions for abstract words produced more self-reports of a verbal-associative strategy. The results replicate those of an earlier study involving oral production of definitions, suggesting that common cognitive mechanisms underlie the production of spoken and written language as explained by dual coding theory. Instructionally, the use of concreteness and imagination in composing definitions may lead to improved student writing. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)