Elements of the Socratic method: V. Self-improvement.

The Socratic method includes the use of systematic questioning, inductive reasoning, universal definitions, and a disavowal of knowledge. The present article describes a focus on self-improvement that often guides the clinical application of the Socratic method. Self-improvement is based on three general goals: self-knowledge, self-acceptance, and self-regulation. Each of these goals is discussed in terms of the benefits it provides the client, obstacles that prevent or hinder its development, and the process of improving it through psychotherapy. The focus on self-improvement in psychotherapy is clarified through several brief case examples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elements of the Socratic method: I. Systematic questioning.

Describes the use of systematic questioning (SQ), one of the elements of the Socratic method (SM), in terms of its format, content, and process. The other 2 elements of SM are inductive reasoning and universal definitions. Although many psychotherapists allude to the SM, most refer only to the questioning style and few describe the process in adequate detail. An attempt is made to provide an intermediate level of structure so as to facilitate a shaping process during the interview. SQ involves a complex interplay of question format, content, and process issues. The format of SQ emphasizes higher level cognitive processes, the content focuses on developing independent problem-solving skills in the client, and the process emphasizes a collaborative interaction between therapist and client. SQ can be used to facilitate self-initiated discovery, helping clients realize the answers they already possess. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elements of the Socratic method: II. Inductive reasoning.

The Socratic method uses systematic questioning and inductive reasoning to help clients derive universal definitions. In psychotherapy, inductive reasoning can be based on enumerative generalizations, analogical comparisons, and eliminative causal reasoning. Enumerative generalizations use pattern identification to support a conclusion about an entire group of events. Analogical comparisons help clients transfer knowledge from familiar to novel situations. Eliminative causal reasoning involves manipulating environmental conditions to examine possible causes of specific problematic events. After a probable cause has been identified, it can be modified through treatment. The clinical utility and fallacies of logical reasoning are discussed as they apply to each of the 3 forms of inductive reasoning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Meta-analysis of psychotherapy outcome studies.

Results of 375 controlled evaluations of psychotherapy and counseling were coded and integrated statistically. The findings provide convincing evidence of the efficacy of psychotherapy. On the average, the typical therapy client is better off than 75% of untreated individuals. Few important differences in effectiveness could be established among many quite different types of psychotherapy. More generally, virtually no difference in effectiveness was observed between the class of all behavioral therapies (e.g., systematic desensitization and behavior modification) and the nonbehavioral therapies (e.g., Rogerian, psychodynamic, rational-emotive, and transactional analysis). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elements of the Socratic method: VI. Promoting virtue in everyday life.

The Socratic method in psychotherapy includes a systematic series of questions designed to help clients confront broad life issues, respect their lack of knowledge, and make philosophical changes in their approach to life through therapeutic dialog. The Socratic method also helps clients explore aspects of virtue and vice as related to their current psychological problems and life goals. The cardinal virtues of wisdom, courage, moderation, justice, and piety are discussed as they pertain to contemporary psychotherapy. By evaluating virtues in general as well as in specific terms, clients can make life changes in their attitudes and behaviors. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What is Socratic questioning?

To better understand Socratic questioning, the authors reviewed the literature regarding the Socratic method. Despite being regarded as a fundamentally important psychotherapeutic procedure, a great deal of discrepancy exists concerning various aspects of the method, and these incongruities are described. Discord occurs in the literature, for example, concerning the purpose of Socratic questioning and also what the components of the technique might be. It is suggested that striving to achieve clarity regarding the Socratic method would enhance psychotherapy practices and maximize the benefits experienced by clients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Differences in the effectiveness of psychodynamic therapists: A process-outcome study.

Using data from a study (e.g., H. H. Strupp; see record 1993-38424-001) on the effect of therapist training on psychotherapy outcome, 16 therapists were identified as either more effective or less effective based on patients' outcome scores and length of stay (LOS) in treatment. Measures were completed by patients, therapists, independent observers, and therapists' supervisors. In-session behaviors were assessed at Sessions 3, 8, 16, and 22. More effective therapists displayed more positive behaviors (e.g., warmth), fewer negative behaviors (e.g., attacking), and more self-criticism than did less effective therapists. All therapists, however, showed some negative behavior. Significant results were almost entirely relationship-oriented. LOS was related to therapist behavior more often than were outcome scores. Only supervisors were largely unable to make the distinction between more or less effective therapists. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Elements of the Socratic method: IV. Disavowal of knowledge.

Describes how the Socratic method can be used in combination with most forms of psychotherapy. It is the disavowal of knowledge as a general attitude that underlies the effective use of the Socratic method. This refers to a tendency to view most information as made up of tentative beliefs and personal opinions rather than objective facts. Disavowal of knowledge by the client reduces inadequately justified beliefs, stimulates a search for new information, and facilitates critical thinking by the client. Likewise, disavowal of knowledge by the therapist promotes intellectual modesty in sessions, ensures a genuine desire for learning by the therapist, and encourages collaborative empiricism. When the therapist models skepticism and willingness to search for answers, the client develops an attitude characterized by an openness to learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stereotypes and social judgment.

In 5 experiments, 272 university students were initially exposed to an induction series in which there was a systematic association between the amount of psychopathology that was implied by various behavior samples and other readily discernable aspects of these samples (i.e., correlated cues). In 2 studies, for example, a series of confused definitions or nonpathological definitions were described as coming from patients at psychiatric or general hospitals. The introduction of correlated cues often produced contrast effects, suggesting that Ss may have evaluated the test definitions by implicitly comparing them to other definitions from that category (e.g., other definitions from the same hospital). Assimilation effects were observed when Ss were required to indicate their overall impressions of a given patient, or group of patients, before evaluating a particular definition. Findings are discussed in terms of priming and stereotyping. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

What Is Interpersonal Behavior? A Post-Cartesian Approach to Problematic Interpersonal Patterns and Psychotherapy Process.

Most efforts to learn about interpersonal behavior reflect a shared set of key commitments. These commitments, in turn, reflect the Cartesian framework with its split between person and world. Guided by the recent work of certain developmental psychologists interested in social interaction (e.g., Fogel, 1993; Kaye, 1985) and by an alternative philosophical perspective that regards the person's involvement in practical activities as fundamental (Heidegger, 1962; Merleau-Ponty, 1962; Wittgenstein, 1958), the author maps out the participatory model of interpersonal behavior. According to this model, interpersonal behaviors are viewed as a person's contributions to doing something with other people. The author considers the model's implications for research by clinical psychologists on problematic behavior patterns in adults and psychotherapy process. The author also considers implications of rejecting the Cartesian framework for methodological concerns about the role of interpretation in research on interpersonal behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

From trainee impairment to professional competence problems: Seeking new terminology that facilitates effective action.

[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 39(4) of Professional Psychology: Research and Practice (see record 2008-10899-013). The APA ethics code standards for issues related to training were incorrectly identified in the last sentence on p. 501 (and continuing on p. 502). The sentence should read as follows: "The 2002 revision of the APA ethics code added standards that address training, including due process conditions for requiring disclosure of personal information when problems arise for trainees (Standard 7.04) as well as standards for mandating individual or group psychotherapy (Standard 7.05)."] Professional psychology has used the term impairment to describe trainees whose behavior does not meet minimum standards of professional competence, despite difficulties with the term that have been identified (L. Forrest, N. Elman, S. Gizara, & T. Vacha-Haase, see record 1999-03998-001), and a few new terms that have been posited. Overlap with definitions of disability and impairment under the Americans With Disabilities Act (1990) create legal risk for training programs continuing to use the term impairment (C. A. Falender, C. J. Collins, & E. P. Shafranske, 2005). In this article, we review this and other problems with impairment, propose new terminology that captures three concepts (problems, professional, and competence), and examine ways in which the new terminology is contextually grounded in emerging trends in psychology (e.g., the competency movement). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychotherapy effects: Real or imaginary?

Comments on research regarding the reality of psychotherapy effects (e.g., the placebo effect), asserting that researchers are advancing toward a better understanding of the effects of spontaneous remission, placebo treatment, types of psychotherapy, psychoanalysis, and behavior therapy. The present author questions the benefits of continuing research and debate over the effects, given the fact that results by approximately 500 researchers are in agreement with theory. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Acquisition of drug self-administration: Environmental and pharmacological interventions.

The development of drug-reinforced behavior is a transition process characterized by a relatively rapid shift from little or no drug-maintained responding to high, stable levels of responding. Animal studies of drug self-administration focus on how rapidly this process takes place or what percentage of animals acquire drug self-administration. It is essential to have animal models of acquisition because the process is difficult to study with drug-naive humans. Animal studies reveal a wide range of factors that can either accelerate or decrease acquisition of drug self-administration, such as environmental conditions (e.g., feeding conditions, palatable dietary substances, stress), pharmacological variables (e.g., drug dose, drug history, pretreatment drugs), and individual differences (e.g., reactivity level, age, sex, dietary preferences, genetics). This article discusses the methods used to study acquisition of drug-reinforced behavior in laboratory animals and the variables that have been reported to accelerate or prevent the acquisition of drug-reinforced behavior. An understanding of the conditions that can enhance acquisition in animals may help predict vulnerability to drug use in humans and lead to successful methods for prevention of drug abuse. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflective-functioning during the process in brief psychotherapies.

Reflective-functioning (RF) is the ability to recognize the existence and nature of mental processes taking place in the self and in others (e.g., intentions and wishes). RF was investigated here as a patient variable during the process in two studies of brief psychotherapy. The first study investigated cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) and interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT) in the TDCRP sample. The second study investigated psychodynamic psychotherapy (BPDT). The Psychotherapy Process Q-set (PQS) was implemented to identify process correlates associated with high and low RF in order to distinguish which specific components in the psychotherapeutic process are related to RF. Process correlates defining high RF had good outcome, and process correlates defining low RF had poor outcome. RF remained stable or decreased during treatments and was linked with personality characteristics in the patients. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Climate as a moderator of the relationship between leader-member exchange and content specific citizenship: Safety climate as an exemplar.

The present study integrates role theory, social exchange, organizational citizenship, and climate research to suggest that employees will reciprocate implied obligations of leadership-based social exchange (e.g., leader-member exchange [LMX]) by expanding their role and behaving in ways consistent with contextual behavioral expectations (e.g., work group climate). Using safety climate as an exemplar, the authors found that the relationship between LMX and subordinate safety citizenship role definitions was moderated by safety climate. In summary, high-quality LMX relationships resulted in expanded safety citizenship role definitions when there was a positive safety climate and there was no such expansion under less positive safety climates. The authors also found that safety citizenship role definitions were significantly related to safety citizenship behavior. Implications for both social exchange theory and safety research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The socialization of achievement orientation in females.

Reviews the literature on achievement motivation and achievement-related behavior in females in an attempt to identify theoretical relationships and child-rearing antecedents of these variables. The impact of sex-role definitions on achievement striving is examined with particular attention to the hypothesis that females' primary goal is affiliation. Individual differences in integrating achievement striving with sex-role definitions are discussed, and the patterns of variables (e.g., level of aspiration, expectancy of success, and fear of failure) are examined. The literature on parental socialization of achievement orientation is also reviewed. (94 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Disabuse of the drug metaphor: Psychotherapy process-outcome correlations.

The drug metaphor suggests that if a process component (e.g., interpretation) is an active ingredient of a successful psychotherapy, then administering a relatively high level of it should yield a relatively positive outcome, and levels of the process component and the outcome should be correlated across clients. Measures of 5 theoretically relevant, reliably measured verbal process components were compared with the rate of change in 3 standard symptom intensity measures across the brief treatments of 39 (mainly depressed) psychotherapy clients. The expected significant process-outcome correlations were not found. These results are discussed as they illuminate some misleading assumptions that underlie many conventional studies of psychotherapy process and outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Patterns of self-disclosure in psychotherapy and marriage.

This study compared patterns of self-disclosure in psychotherapy and marriage. Participants (48 married, current psychotherapy patients, mean age = 42) completed a 101-item Disclosure to Therapist Inventory and a companion measure, a 101-item Disclosure to Spouse Inventory. Results indicated a pattern of greater disclosure to one's therapist in regard to issues involving despair (e.g., feelings of depression), and to one's spouse in regard to procreation and body concerns (e.g., birth control) and values (e.g., feelings about religion, race, or politics). Issues involving sex were infrequently discussed in either context. Discrepancy scores (differences between extent of disclosure and perceived importance) were greater in the spouse condition. Outcome predictors varied by situation, with overall disclosure predicting therapeutic outcome and both overall disclosure and discrepancy scores predicting marital satisfaction. Findings suggest that although there is substantial overlap in issues discussed in these two contexts, certain intimate disclosures are perceived as situation-specific. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Culturally adapted psychotherapy and the legitimacy of myth: A direct-comparison meta-analysis.

Psychotherapy is a culturally encapsulated healing practice that is created from and dedicated to specific cultural contexts (Frank & Frank, 1993; Wampold, 2007; Wrenn, 1962). Consequently, conventional psychotherapy is a practice most suitable for dominant cultural groups within North America and Western Europe but may be culturally incongruent with the values and worldviews of ethnic and racial minority groups (e.g., D. W. Sue, Arredondo, & McDavis, 1992). Culturally adapted psychotherapy has been reported in a previous meta-analysis as more effective for ethnic and racial minorities than a set of heterogeneous control conditions (Griner & Smith, 2006), but the relative efficacy of culturally adapted psychotherapy versus unadapted, bona fide psychotherapy remains unestablished. Furthermore, one particular form of adaptation involving the explanation of illness—known in an anthropological context as the illness myth of universal healing practices (Frank & Frank, 1993)—may be responsible for the differences in outcomes between adapted and unadapted treatments for ethnic and racial minority clients. The present multilevel-model, direct-comparison meta-analysis of published and unpublished studies confirms that culturally adapted psychotherapy is more effective than unadapted, bona fide psychotherapy by d = 0.32 for primary measures of psychological functioning. Adaptation of the illness myth was the sole moderator of superior outcomes via culturally adapted psychotherapy (d = 0.21). Implications of myth adaptation in culturally adapted psychotherapy for future research, training, and practice are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)