Comparative analysis of rockmass characterization techniques for the stability prediction of road cut slopes along NH-44A,Mizoram, India

The network of roads in hilly areas plays an important role in the socio-economic development of any country. Instability in road cut slopes is the most critical and common problem in the Northeast region of India. We conducted rockmass characterization of thirteen slopes from three regions, namely Lengpui, Phunchawng and Aizawl Zoo areas near the Aizawl city, on the basis of rock mass rating (RMR), geological strength index (GSI), kinematic analysis, and various slope mass rating techniques. Wedge failure was observed to be prominent in these regions, though some other modes of failure were present at the site. The stability of road cut slopes was found to vary from partially stable to completely unstable with regard to slope mass rating (SMR), Chinese slope mass rating (CSMR) and the continuous slope mass rating (CoSMR). A comparative analysis was also carried out among the findings of various rockmass characterization techniques to predict the stability of the road cut slopes along NH-44A highway.

     

Rock mass strength parameters mobilised in tunnels

Experience suggests that there is an enhancement in the strength of rock mass around the tunnels due to constraints in fracture propagation. In this paper, mobilised strength parameters and modulus of deformation have been deduced from back analysis of the field experience for the purpose of realistic non-linear stress analysis of arched underground openings in nearly dry rock masses, and modified correlations have been suggested. It is also inferred from field observations that sympathetic failure of rock mass may take place at all points almost simultaneously within the failure zone if deviatoric strain exceeds a critical value at any point. Block shear tests support Hoek and Brown's (1980) criterion, which is recommended for analysis of rock slopes and open cut mines.     

Effect of intermediate principal stress on strength of anisotropic rock mass

The Mohr-Coulomb criterion needs to be modified for highly anisotropic rock material and jointed rock masses. Taking σ₂ into account, a new strength criterion is suggested because both σ₂ and σ₃ would contribute to the normal stress on the existing plane of weakness. This criterion explains the enhancement of strength (σ₂ – σ3) in the underground openings because σ₂ along the tunnel axis is not relaxed significantly. Another cause of strength enhancement is less reduction in the mass modulus in tunnels due to constrained dilatancy. Empirical correlations obtained from data from block shear tests and uniaxial jacking tests have been suggested to estimate new strength parameters. A correlation for the tensile strength of the rock mass is presented. Finally, Hoek and Brown theory is extended to account for σ₂. A common strength criterion for both supported underground openings and rock slopes is suggested.     

Influence of degree of interlock on confined strength of jointed hard rock masses

The strength of jointed rock mass is strongly controlled by the degree of interlock between its constituent rock blocks. The degree of interlock constrains the kinematic freedom of individual rock blocks to rotate and slide along the block forming joints. The Hoek–Brown (HB) failure criterion and the geological strength index (GSI) were developed based on experiences from mine slopes and tunneling projects in moderately to poorly interlocked jointed rock masses. It has since then been demonstrated that the approach to estimate the HB strength parameters based on the GSI strength scaling equations (called the ‘GSI strength equations’) tends to underestimate the confined peak strength of highly interlocked jointed rock masses (i.e. GSI > 65), where the rock mass is often non-persistently jointed, and the intact rock blocks are strong and brittle. The estimation of the confined strength of such rock masses is relevant when designing mine pillars and abutments at great depths, where the confining pressure is high enough to prevent block rotation and free sliding on block boundaries. In this article, a grain-based distinct element modeling approach is used to simulate jointed rock masses of various degrees of interlock and to investigate the influences of block shape, joint persistence and joint surface condition on the confined peak strengths. The focus is on non-persistently jointed and blocky (persistently jointed) rock masses, consisting of hard and homogeneous rock blocks devoid of any strength degrading defects such as veins. The results from this investigation confirm that the GSI strength equations underestimate the confined strength of highly interlocked and non-persistently jointed rock masses. Moreover, the GSI strength equations are found to be valid to estimate the confined strength of persistently jointed rock masses with smooth and non-dilatant joint surfaces.     

Methodology for tunnel and portal support design in mixed limestone, schist and phyllite conditions: a case study in Turkey

The purpose of this study is to present a methodology for tunnel and support design in mixed limestone, schist and phyllite conditions through investigating two highway tunnel case studies that are located along the Antalya–Alanya Highway in southern Turkey. The main lithologies of the project area are regularly jointed, recrystallized limestone and the weak lithologies of the schist unit (i.e., pelitic schist, calc schist, graphitic phyllite and alternations of these lithologies). A detailed geological and geotechnical study was carried out in the project area, and the tunnel ground support types and categories were determined according to the Q-system, rock mass rating method and New Austrian Tunneling Method (NATM). The shear strength parameters and geomechanical properties of the rock masses were obtained by using the geological strength index (GSI). The deformation moduli and post-failure behavior of the rock masses have been determined. Slope stability analyses were performed at the portal, side or cut slope sections. Kinematic and limit equilibrium analyses incorporating the effects of water pressure were performed for the regularly jointed failed rock slopes. Circular failure analogy was used for the slope stability analyses of irregularly jointed, highly foliated lithologies. Slope support system recommendations were made. A back analysis on a failed slope was performed. The results of the back analysis compared well with the results obtained through the GSI method. The tunnel grounds were divided into sections according to their rock mass classes. The deformations and stress concentrations around each tunnel section were investigated and the interactions of the empirical support systems with the rock masses were analyzed by using the Phase² finite element software. The regularly jointed rock masses were modeled to be anisotropic and the irregularly jointed, highly foliated and very deformable soil-like lithologies were modeled to be isotropic in the tunnel finite element analyses.     

Generalized crack initiation and crack damage stress thresholds of brittle rock masses near underground excavations

The rock mass failure process is characterized by several distinct deformation stages which include crack initiation, crack propagation and coalescence. It is important to know the stress levels associated with these deformation stages for engineering design and practice.Extensive theoretical, experimental and numerical studies on the failure process of intact rocks exist. It is generally understood that crack initiation starts at 0.3 to 0.5 times the peak uniaxial compressive stress. In confined conditions, the constant-deviatoric stress criterion was found to describe the crack initiation stress level.Here, generalized crack initiation and crack damage thresholds of rock masses are proposed. The crack initiation threshold is defined by σ₁−σ₃=A σ_cm and the crack damage threshold is defined by σ₁−σ₃=B σ_cm for jointed rock masses, where A and B are material constants and σ_cm is the uniaxial compressive strength of the rock masses. For a massive rock mass without joints, σ_cm is equal to σ_cd, the long-term uniaxial strength of intact rock. After examining data from intact rocks and jointed rock masses, it was found that for massive to moderately jointed rock masses, the material constants A and B are in the range of 0.4 to 0.5, 0.8 to 0.9, respectively, and for moderately to highly jointed rock masses, A and B are in the range of 0.5 to 0.6, 0.9 to 1.0, respectively. The generalized crack initiation and crack damage thresholds, when combined with simple linear elastic stress analysis, assist in assessing the rock mass integrity in low confinement conditions, greatly reducing the effort needed to obtain the required material constants for engineering design of underground excavations.     

TBM performance estimation using rock mass classifications

Three tunnels for hydraulic purposes were excavated by tunnel-boring machines (TBM) in mostly hard metamorphic rocks in Northern Italy. A total of 14 km of tunnel was surveyed almost continually, yielding over 700 sets of data featuring rock mass characteristics and TBM performance. The empirical relations between rock mass rating and penetration rate clearly show that TBM performance reaches a maximum in the rock mass rating (RMR) range 40–70 while slower penetration is experienced in both too bad and too good rock masses. However, as different rocks gives different penetrations for the same RMR, the use of Bieniawski's classification for predictive purpose is only possible provided one uses a normalized RMR index with reference to the basic factors affecting TBM tunneling. Comparison of actual penetrations with those predicted by the Innaurato and Barton models shows poor agreement, thus highlighting the difficulties involved in TBM performance prediction.     

复杂应力状态下岩体强度的各向异性研究

 岩体中存在着大量的节理裂隙等不连续面,这些不连续面对岩体的强度起着重要的作用,岩体可能会沿着这些不连续面发生破坏。在分析中间主应力对岩体强度影响的基础上,验证统一强度理论,并在此基础上,建立可以反映中间主应力变化的强度参数,同时采用试验对其进行验证。针对含有不连续面的岩体,分析不连续面上的应力分布,建立复杂应力条件下的岩体各向异性强度准则,并针对该强度的特殊情况作简化,分析适用条件。采用节理岩体的真三轴试验对其验证,结果表明所建立的各向异性强度准则可以恰当的反映岩体的强度。分析中间主应力,结构面倾角和走向对岩体强度的影响。     

非连续变形分析(DDA)中断续节理扩展的模拟方法研究和试验验证

在非连续变形分析方法中,可用虚节理表示岩石破坏过程中潜在的破坏路径,因此断续节理中节理面开裂、扩展、贯通过程认为是虚节理(岩桥)向实节理转化的过程,这一过程伴随着虚节理(岩桥)力学性质参数的弱化,且弱化程度受到虚节理向实节理转化程度的影响。因此,利用表征虚节理向实节理转化程度的虚节理连通率对虚节理力学性质参数的弱化规律进行研究,得出力学性质参数弱化函数;在此基础上对Jennings强度准则和最大抗拉强度准则进行处理,提出应用于非连续变形分析计算的断续节理强度形式;最后,将虚节理力学性质参数弱化规律和处理后的断续节理强度表达式运用于非连续变形分析计算程序中,实现对断续节理扩展过程的模拟算法。并通过剪切试验计算结果与室内试验结果的比较,验证该算法的正确性。     

Rock mechanics for design of Brisbane tunnels and implications of recent thinking in relation to rock mass strength

This paper explores the potential implications of recent thinking in relation to rock mass strength for future tunnelling projects in Brisbane, Australia, particularly as they are constructed within deep horizons where the in situ stress magnitudes is larger. Rock mass failure mechanisms for the current tunnels in Brisbane are generally discontinuity controlled and the potential for stress-induced failure is relatively rare. For the road tunnels which have been constructed in Brisbane over the last 12 years, the strength of the more massive rock masses for continuum analysis has been estimated by the application of the Hoek-Brown (H-B) failure criterion using the geological strength index (GSI) to determine the H-B parameters m_b, s and a. Over the last few years, alternative approaches to estimating rock mass strength for ‘massive to moderately jointed hard rock masses’ have been proposed by others, which are built on the work completed by E. Hoek and E.T. Brown in this area over their joint careers. This paper explores one of these alternative approaches to estimating rock mass strength for one of the geological units (the Brisbane Tuff), which is often encountered in tunnelling projects in Brisbane. The potential implications of these strength forecasts for future tunnelling projects are discussed along with the additional work which will need to be undertaken to confirm the applicability of such alternative strength criteria for this rock mass.     

基于广义Hoek-Brown非线性破坏准则的节理岩体地基承载力研究

 针对节理岩体非线性破坏特征,发展基于Hoek-Brown破坏准则的临界滑动场理论进行节理岩体地基承载力的计算。首先将Hoek-Brown准则的剪切强度逐点等效到Mohr-Coulomb强度线上,求得每点的瞬时内摩擦角和瞬时黏聚力;在此基础上,改进基于Mohr-Coulomb准则的临界滑动场理论,建立新的迭代算法,将Hoek-Brown强度准则与临界滑动场理论结合起来,求解被动土压力和地基承载力。同时,综合分析GSI和mi值对地基承载力的影响。算例对比分析结果表明,该方法能迅速准确地确定节理岩体地基最危险破坏滑面并得到相应的地基极限承载力值。     

Tensile resistance of rock anchors

Using the Euler's variational method and assuming a rock mass failure criterion of Hoek and Brown type (Hoek E, Brown ET. Empirical strength criterion for rock masses. J Geotech Eng Division, American Society of Civil Engineers 1980;106(GT9)1013–35. Hoek E, Wood D, Shah S. A modified Hoek-Brown criterion for jointed rock masses. In: Hudson JA, editor. Proc., Rock Characterization Symp. of ISRM: Eurock 92. London: British Geotechnical Society, 1992. p. 209–14), the tensile resistance of rock anchors is obtained. The rupture surface shape through the rock mass is also obtained and checked against some published data. Depending on the slenderness ratio (L/D; L=anchor length, D=anchor diameter) two types of failure surfaces are obtained; short and long ones. This second type of surface is a complex one and it is composed by a cylinder and a surface of revolution with an hyperbolic type shape. The values of the ultimate pullout strength, depending on the rock type and its Bieniawski indexes, are obtained and compared with the values published in technical literature. A reasonable agreement is obtained.     

Strength and failure characteristics of jointed marble under true triaxial compression

The rock structure and three-dimensional stress state play a vital role in the mechanical behaviour of rock masses. Here, a series of true triaxial compression tests (σ₁ > σ₂ > σ₃) are conducted on jointed marble (50 × 50 × 100 mm³) containing a natural stiff joint, taken from the China Jinping Underground Laboratory (CJPL-II) project. The purposes of this study are to investigate the joint effect and estimate the stress dependency of jointed marble. The test results show that jointed marble can fail in four distinct forms, namely, splitting or shearing of intact marble, opening of the joint or sliding along the joint, and these failure modes are influenced by the joint configuration and the minimum and intermediate principal stresses. Generally, jointed marble has more brittle post-peak behaviour than intact marble. The linear Mogi-Coulomb failure criterion can be modified to describe the strength of the jointed marble under true triaxial compression. The jointed marble strength is more sensitive to the minimum principal stress than to the intermediate principal stress. A maximum decline of 25% in strength is observed, which corresponds to a joint dip angle of 60° at σ₂ = 60 MPa and σ₃ = 30 MPa. The link between the experimental results and in situ fracturing at CJPL-II is also demonstrated.

     

A geo-engineering classification for rocks and rock masses

In this article, an attempt is made to assess the reliability of predicting the uniaxial compressive strength and the corresponding modulus of a rock mass by current approaches. These two basic engineering properties, when estimated from rock mass rating (RMR), Q and geological strength index (GSI), indicate hardly any change in the modulus ratio with the change in the quality of the rock mass from very good to very poor. However, the modulus ratio obtained from the relations involving the joint factor, J_f, indicate a definite decrease in the modulus ratio with a decrease in the quality of the rock mass. The strength and modulus in the unconfined and confined states, the modulus ratio and failure strain in the unconfined case were linked to J_f in earlier publications based on a large experimental database. Some of these relations were adopted to verify the response of jointed test specimens, the response of the rock mass during excavations for mining and civil underground chambers, in establishing ground reaction curves including the extent of the broken zone, and the bearing capacity of shallow foundations.The joint factor is now linked to RMR, Q and GSI. The prediction of compressive strength and modulus of the rock mass appears to be more suitable. For classifying the rock, based on these properties, the Deere and Miller engineering classification, applicable to intact rocks, has been suitably modified and adopted. The results of different modes of failure of jointed specimens establish definite trends of changes in the modulus ratio originating from the intact rock value on the modified Deere and Miller plot. A geo-engineering classification is evolved by considering strength, modulus, quantifiable weathering index and lithological aspects of the rock.     

柱状节理岩体各向异性强度准则研究

以正六棱柱型柱状节理岩体为研究对象,根据柱状节理的分布特性,在参考Ramamurthy非线性强度准则的基础上,引入节理系数表征节理对岩体强度的影响,建立正六棱柱型柱状节理岩体各向异性强度准则。该强度准则以幂指数形式反映柱状节理岩体的强度非线性。分析时首先针对正六棱柱型柱状节理岩体,研究节理系数的计算方法,然后结合模拟柱状节理岩体单轴和三轴压缩试验结果确定各向异性强度准则中的常数,在此基础上采用已有试验数据对该各向异性强度准则进行初步验证。结果表明:该各向异性强度准则能够较好地反映柱状节理岩体强度的各向异性和非线性,预测值与实测值比较吻合。     

Advances in statistical mechanics of rock masses and its engineering applications

To efficiently link the continuum mechanics for rocks with the structural statistics of rock masses,a theoretical and methodological system called the statistical mechanics of rock masses(SMRM)was developed in the past three decades.In SMRM,equivalent continuum models of stressestrain relationship,strength and failure probability for jointed rock masses were established,which were based on the geometric probability models characterising the rock mass structure.This follows the statistical physics,the continuum mechanics,the fracture mechanics and the weakest link hypothesis.A general constitutive model and complete stressestrain models under compressive and shear conditions were also developed as the derivatives of the SMRM theory.An SMRM calculation system was then developed to provide fast and precise solutions for parameter estimations of rock masses,such as full-direction rock quality designation(RQD),elastic modulus,Coulomb compressive strength,rock mass quality rating,and Poisson’s ratio and shear strength.The constitutive equations involved in SMRM were integrated into a FLAC3D based numerical module to apply for engineering rock masses.It is also capable of analysing the complete deformation of rock masses and active reinforcement of engineering rock masses.Examples of engineering applications of SMRM were presented,including a rock mass at QBT hydropower station in northwestern China,a dam slope of Zongo II hydropower station in D.R.Congo,an open-pit mine in Dexing,China,an underground powerhouse of Jinping I hydropower station in southwestern China,and a typical circular tunnel in Lanzhou-Chongqing railway,China.These applications verified the reliability of the SMRM and demonstrated its applicability to broad engineering issues associated with jointed rock masses.     

Strength of massive to moderately jointed hard rock masses

The Hoek-Brown(HB) failure criterion and the geological strength index(GSI) were developed for the estimation of rock mass strength in jointed and blocky ground where rock mass failure is dominated by sliding along open joints and rotation of rock blocks. In massive, veined and moderately jointed rock in which rock blocks cannot form without failure of intact rock, the approach to obtain HB parameters must be modified. Typical situations when these modifications are required include the design of pillars,excavation and cavern stability, strainburst potential assessment, and tunnel support in deep underground conditions(around s1/s ci 0.15, where s1 is the major principal compressive stress and s ciis the unconfined compressive strength of the homogeneous rock) in hard brittle rocks with GSI ! 65. In this article, the strength of massive to moderately jointed hard rock masses is investigated, and an approach is presented to estimate the rock mass strength envelope using laboratory data from uniaxial and triaxial compressive strength tests without reliance on the HB-GSI equations. The data from tests on specimens obtained from massive to moderately jointed heterogeneous(veined) rock masses are used to obtain the rock and rock mass strengths at confining stress ranges that are relevant for deep tunnelling and mining;and a methodology is presented for this purpose from laboratory data alone. By directly obtaining the equivalent HB rock mass strength envelope for massive to moderately jointed rock from laboratory tests,the HB-GSI rock mass strength estimation approach is complemented for conditions where the GSIequations are not applicable. Guidance is also provided on how to apply the proposed approach when laboratory test data are not or not yet available.     

基于零厚度黏聚力单元节理面剪切破坏机理宏细观研究

为了探究不同粗糙度节理岩体剪切过程及破坏类型,利用ABAQUS有限元分析软件,采用全局嵌入零厚度黏聚力单元的方法模拟带节理岩体压剪过程。通过室内压剪试验和数值模拟结果对比确定所建立模型的正确性,从宏细观角度分析节理岩体剪切破坏行为。研究结果表明：采取全局嵌入零厚度黏聚力单元模拟节理岩体压剪过程的方法相对准确,能真实反映节理面细观破坏过程;不同粗糙度节理试样在恒定法向荷载下的剪切峰值强度随着粗糙度增加而递增;节理岩体的剪切过程大致可以分为4个阶段,线弹性强化阶段、带裂纹强化阶段、塑性软化阶段和残余强度阶段;不同粗糙度节理岩体在剪切过程中破坏类型不同,在恒定法向荷载下岩体剪切破坏大致可以分为3种形式,分别是滑移破坏,岩体局部剪断破坏和切齿破坏。     

A generalized three-dimensional failure criterion for rock masses

The smooth convex generalized failure function, which represents 1/6 part of envelope in the deviatoric plane, is proposed. The proposed function relies on four shape parameters (Ls, a, b and c), in which two parameters (a and b) are dependent on the others. The parameter L s is called extension ratio. The proposed failure function could be incorporated with any two-dimensional (2D) failure criteria to make it a three-dimensional (3D) version. In this paper, a mathematical formulation for incorporation of Hoek-Brown failure criterion with the proposed function is presented. The Hoek-Brown failure criterion is the most suited 2D failure criterion for geomaterials. Two types of analyses for best-fitting solution of published true tri-axial test data were made by considering (1) constant extension ratio and (2) variable extension ratio. The shape and strength parameters for different types of rocks have been determined by best-fitting the published true tri-axial test data for both the analyses. It is observed from the best-fitting solution by considering uniform extension ratio (Ls) that shape constants have a correlation with Hoek-Brown strength parameters. Thus, only two parameters (σc and m) are needed for representing the 3D failure criterion for intact rock. The statistical expression between shape and Hoek-Brown strength parameters is given. In the second analysis, when considering varying extension ratio, another parameter fis introduced. The modified extension ratio is related to f and extension ratio. The results at minimum mean misfit for all the nine rocks indicate that the range of f varies from 0.7 to 1.0. It is found that mean misfit by considering varying extension ratio is lower than that in the first analysis. But it requires three parameters. A statistical expression between f and Hoek-Brown strength parameters has been established. Though coefficient of correlation is not reasonable, we may eliminate it as an extra parameter. At the end of the paper, a methodology has also been given for its application to isotropic jointed rock mass, so that it can be implemented in a numerical code for stability analysis of jointed rock mass structures.     

基于组合模型法的贯通节理岩体动态损伤本构模型

针对贯通节理岩体动态变形特点并结合已有岩石动态本构模型的相关研究成果,将贯通节理岩体变形过程中的动态应力视为贯通节理岩体静态应力分量与相应动态应力分量的叠加。其中贯通节理岩体静态应力分量采用考虑岩石细观损伤的非线性元件、节理面闭合及剪切变形元件等3个基本元件的串联来模拟,动态应力分量采用黏性元件来模拟,从而建立了贯通节理岩体动态单轴压缩损伤本构模型。其次,根据贯通节理岩体在单轴压缩荷载下往往会沿节理面发生剪切破坏的特点,在前述已建立的损伤本构模型中引人节理剪切破坏准则对该模型进行修正,从而更好地考虑了节理剪切强度对该模型的影响,最终建立了考虑节理剪切强度的贯通节理岩体单轴压缩损伤本构模型。最后利用该模型对贯通节理岩体在压缩荷载作用下的力学特性进行了分析计算,重点讨论了节理倾角对岩体单轴动态压缩峰值强度的影响规律。研究结果表明随着节理倾角的变化,节理岩体将发生岩块张拉或剪切破坏、沿节理面的剪切破坏及上述两种破坏模式的复合破坏,相应地节理岩体的单轴压缩动态峰值强度也随之有较大变化。