The end of the end of ideology.

The "end of ideology" was declared by social scientists in the aftermath of World War II. They argued that (a) ordinary citizens' political attitudes lack the kind of stability, consistency, and constraint that ideology requires; (b) ideological constructs such as liberalism and conservatism lack motivational potency and behavioral significance; (c) there are no major differences in content (or substance) between liberal and conservative points of view; and (d) there are few important differences in psychological processes (or styles) that underlie liberal versus conservative orientations. The end-of-ideologists were so influential that researchers ignored the topic of ideology for many years. However, current political realities, recent data from the American National Election Studies, and results from an emerging psychological paradigm provide strong grounds for returning to the study of ideology. Studies reveal that there are indeed meaningful political and psychological differences that covary with ideological self-placement. Situational variables--including system threat and mortality salience--and dispositional variables--including openness and conscientiousness--affect the degree to which an individual is drawn to liberal versus conservative leaders, parties, and opinions. A psychological analysis is also useful for understanding the political divide between "red states" and "blue states." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

External validity and scientific psychology.

Comments on the article by Stanley Sue (December 1999; see record 1999-15532-003), in which he eloquently described a persistent problem in psychological research: the relative lack of research on ethnic minorities. Sue traced the source of this problem to how science is practiced and, in particular, to scientific psychology's emphasis on internal validity over external validity. He argued that researchers' assumption that causal inferences drawn from a given study are generalizable across individuals from different ethnic backgrounds ultimately masks true differences among diverse ethnic groups and hinders research to determine whether such differences exist. Sue recommended that researchers increase their emphasis on external validity in study designs and embrace methodological pluralism in adopting more qualitative and ethnographic approaches to complement traditional scientistic methods used in psychological research. If scientific psychology is to serve the public interest, its findings must be valid and generalizable and must promote the translation of research into informed public policy. This will be possible only when psychologists stop assuming generality across population subgroups, across settings, and across times. Judicious prioritization of external validity above internal validity will build a better scientific psychology and inform public policy. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A current perspective on gender differences: Implications for research in counseling.

This selective review of the literature examines gender differences in counseling process and outcome. Although trends in the findings have revealed that female clients may be more successful with female counselors, most findings have been inconclusive. This problem may stem from applying a traditional individual differences methodology to the study of gender differences. As a result, most effect sizes for gender have been small to moderate. A social psychological model of gender differences that might inform the research on counseling process and outcome is presented, and related recommendations for future research are made. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology is From Mars, Sexology is From Venus: Can They Meet on Earth?

Mainstream psychologists have not pursued sexology with the enthusiasm aimed at other areas of psychological research. Ambivalence is evident in the ideological marginalization of sexology by mainstream psychology. The authors argue that scientific conflicts between the disciplines in part reflect divergent interpretations of how each discipline approaches the scientific method. By aligning psychology with positivism and sexology with postpositivism, a discussion of cultural, scientific, and normative conflicts between the two disciplines is presented as evidence for these differences in scientific ideology. To address these conflicts, future directions for scientific progress are proposed for sexology and psychology. Specifically, by capitalizing on the strengths of each discipline, collaboration can lead to the validation of sexology as a science and the enhancement of both disciplines. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Personal space: An evaluative and orienting overview.

Defines personal space (PS) and distinguishes it from its companion research areas and reviews and evaluates current PS theories and measurement techniques. The stop-distance and unobtrusive techniques appear best for experimental and naturalistic studies, respectively. It is suggested that considerable reevaluation of research on PS is necessary. Since only age, physical or psychological situation, stigmatizing conditions, and psychological disorders hold up as factors producing differences. Flight or withdrawal appears to result from intrusions and culturally appropriate interpersonal spacings enhance liking and message persuasiveness. It is concluded that more research is needed on theory construction, on comparative evaluation of the various measurement techniques, on specification of the 3-dimensional shape of PS, on specification of the intrusion–discomfort function, on the flexibility of PS, and on the subjective experience of PS. (4 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Why do men rape? An evolutionary psychological perspective.

Rape of women by men has occurred throughout recorded history and across cultures. In this article, we discuss rape from an evolutionary psychological perspective. Evolutionary psychology is a powerful heuristic tool that allows researchers to develop and test novel hypotheses about complex behaviors such as rape. Some researchers have argued that men have evolved psychological mechanisms that motivate them to rape in specific contexts. We discuss evidence consistent with this claim, and argue that a more nuanced view of men's rape behavior is necessary. We propose that it may be useful to characterize rapists as belonging to one of several types, distinguished by individual differences as well as by the circumstances in which they are predicted to commit rape. We discuss research evidence in support of each rapist type, as well as the need for future research. Finally, we discuss research concerning women's rape-avoidance psychology and behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Dimensions of subjective female orgasmic responsiveness.

Results of psychological research show that although female orgasm appears to be a single process physiologically, subjective reports by women indicate that individual differences in their experience are multidimensional. The basis for the discrepant findings was analyzed in 2 studies of reported orgasmic experiences in women. One sample of 115 sexually experienced women (aged 18–52 yrs) yielded data that replicated the finding that coital and masturbatory orgasmic responsiveness can be statistically distinguished and independently assessed, thus indicating that sample selection associated with prior research could not explain the result. A separate sample of 101 sexually experienced women (aged 18–58 yrs) were given an instrument that assessed coital responsiveness but differentiated masturbatory responsiveness into dimensions associated with masturbation when alone and with a partner without intercourse. A confirmatory factor analysis substantiated the existence of the 3 dimensions of female orgasm. However, female orgasmic responsiveness was highly correlated across the 3 dimensions so that it was possible to isolate a large 2nd-order factor of general orgasmic responsiveness that is consistent with most of the physiological evidence on the unitary nature of orgasm. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The gender reality hypothesis.

Comments on the article by J. S. Hyde (see record 2005-11115-001), in which Hyde reviewed meta-analytic evidence on gender differences and concluded that most psychological gender differences are in the close-to-zero or small range. The current author notes some omissions from Hyde's review, including the findings through other research large gender differences are reflected in some kinds of interests and occupational preferences, in males' and females placement on the people-things dimension of interests, and in many kinds of mental illness and behavior problems. The current author's position is that that many psychological gender differences are small-to-nonexistent, some are moderate, and some are large. The task that confronts gender researchers is to explain the complex profile of psychological gender differences and to untangle the myriad social and biological factors that generate both gender differences and gender similarities. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reflections on the commenters' views.

In response to the comments that followed my article, I explain my agreement with the commenters' positions that (a) feminists take differing positions on similarities and differences between the sexes, (b) the science and politics of gender are intertwined and inseparable, and (c) sex-related differences show a wide range of magnitudes in research findings. Also, I note my disagreement with the commenters by maintaining that (a) the effects of psychological treatments that were aggregated by M. W. Lipsey and D. B. Wilson (see record 1994-18340-001) are not representative of all psychological findings, (b) quantitative syntheses of research test theories of sex-related differences and derive from detailed analyses of research reports, and (c) feminism has strongly influenced the scientific consensus about sex-related differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Humanistic" Psychologists.

Having successfully initiated the petition for the establishment of the Division of Humanistic Psychology within APA, I was intrigued by Michael Wertheimer's (see record 1979-22531-001) conclusion that the use of the label humanistic to differentiate this type of psychology from all the rest is unnecessary-particularly since I have arrived at a similar conclusion myself. Outside the APA, many of those who are currently calling themselves "humanistic psychologists" are not really psychologists at all; and the movement seems to be primarily made up of hucksters, charlatans, and perennial therapy shoppers eager to sample the latest far-out techniques--along with a few diehard members of the counterculture left over from the 1960s who are still trying to learn how to be bigger and better hippies. Within APA itself, what is frequently perceived as ideological discrimination is primarily the result of a lack of sufficient intellectual rigor. This in turn has led to the development of a cultic, "us-versus-them" attitude that tends to confuse eccentricity with creativity and to substitute in-group loyalty for the pursuit of excellence. Whatever the situation may have been in the past, humanistic psychology, like Gestalt psychology, may certainly be included in the mainstream of psychological thought today. Henceforth, I shall be happy to think of myself as merely a psychologist, without any identifying ideological label. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychological testing in evaluation of child sexual abuse

In order to assess the utility of psychological testing in evaluating allegations of child sexual abuse, the empirical literature is reviewed in an attempt to answer two questions. First, are there systematic and significant differences on psychological tests between sexually abused and nonabused children? Second, are these differences on psychological testing a direct result of sexual abuse, or are they a result of other coexisting factors that might cause psychological distress? Cognitive measures, personality inventories, symptomatology checklists, and projective tests with sexually abused children are reviewed. While a variety of standardized instruments have been administered to sexually abused children, relatively few have been utilized in empirical studies. Findings have been mixed, with stronger differences between sexually abused and nonabused children generally found on measures completed by parents than on measures administered directly to children. Sexually abused children often fall between nonabused and psychiatric groups. Use of measures specific to sexual abuse is advocated. While psychological tests may currently have limited use in validating suspected sexual abuse, they may be extremely useful in the clinical treatment of the child.     

Psychology, ideology, utopia, and the commons.

Argues that the failure of social scientists to seriously question their own ideological and methodological assumptions contributes to the complex interrelationship between global ecological and individual psychological problems. Much of the literature (e.g., G. Hardin, 1968) on the tragedy of the commons focuses on saving the global commons through increased centralization and regulation, at the expense of the individual's autonomy and psychological sense of community. It is suggested that utopian speculation in general and anarchist political analysis in particular are necessary correctives to misplaced attempts to rearrange the elements of the status quo rather than to alter it in a direction more in keeping with both survival and human dignity. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology at the Intersection of Work and Family: Recommendations for Employers, Working Families, and Policymakers.

Demographic data show that major changes have been occurring in the everyday lives of families over the last generation, with the majority of mothers of young children in the workforce and an increasing number of men and women assuming caregiving responsibilities for older relatives. Thus, the 2 primary identities of most adults, defined by their multiple family and work roles, need to be coordinated in ways that promote positive family outcomes, returns on investments for employers, and societal values. Despite changes in the workforce, the world of work is still largely organized for a family model that is increasingly rare--one with a stay-at-home caregiver. Recommendations based on psychological and other social science research are offered to align the needs of working families and employers. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American.

This article proposes that psychological research published in APA journals focuses too narrowly on Americans, who comprise less than 5% of the world's population. The result is an understanding of psychology that is incomplete and does not adequately represent humanity. First, an analysis of articles published in six premier APA journals is presented, showing that the contributors, samples, and editorial leadership of the journals are predominantly American. Then, a demographic profile of the human population is presented to show that the majority of the world's population lives in conditions vastly different from the conditions of Americans, underlining doubts of how well American psychological research can be said to represent humanity. The reasons for the narrowness of American psychological research are examined, with a focus on a philosophy of science that emphasizes fundamental processes and ignores or strips away cultural context. Finally, several suggestions for broadening the scope of American psychology are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intercultural relations in plural societies.

Discusses the question of how peoples of many and diverse cultural backgrounds come to live together successfully in culturally plural societies. The central issue for psychologists is how psychological research (theory and data) might contribute to an answer to this question, and perhaps influence public policy in this domain. Two research traditions have been concerned with this issue. One is the study of acculturation, which refers to the process of cultural change that results when two (or more) cultural groups come into contact as well as the psychological changes that individuals experience as a result of being members of cultural groups that are undergoing acculturation at the group or collective level. The second research tradition is that of ethnic relations; it is concerned with understanding how individuals perceive, evaluate and behave towards each other, both within and across ethnic group boundaries. This paper reviews a program of research on these two traditions that seeks to contribute to the understanding and management of intercultural relations in Canada. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The psychology and economics of demand.

Notes that the demand curve used in economics may be analogous to the function relating the number of reinforcements obtained on a schedule of reinforcement to some parameter of the schedule. The limits of this analogy are explored, and literature from operant laboratory research, consumer research, and econometrics is surveyed, showing that both similarities and differences exist between supposedly analogous economic and psychological data. It is felt that the empirical similarities are sufficient to suggest that the theoretical differences between reinforcement theory and demand theory (which is based on rationality) may be less important than they appear. Situations intermediate between the laboratory and the economy are examined, and no discontinuity of behavior is found. (4 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Science, ethnicity, and bias: Where have we gone wrong?

The quality, quantity, and funding of ethnic minority research have been inadequate. One factor that has contributed to this inadequacy is the practice of scientific psychology. Although principles of psychological science involve internal and external validity, in practice psychology emphasizes internal validity in research studies. Because many psychological principles and measures have not been cross-validated with different populations, those conducting ethnic minority research often have a more difficult time demonstrating rigorous internal validity. Thus, psychology's overemphasis of internal as opposed to external validity has differentially hindered the development of ethnic minority research. To develop stronger research knowledge on ethnic minority groups, it is important that (a) all research studies address external validity issues and explicitly specify the populations to which the findings are applicable; (b) different research approaches, including the use of qualitative and ethnographic methods, be appreciated; and (c) the psychological meaning of ethnicity or race be examined in ethnic comparisons. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychology and the status quo.

There is little doubt that psychology has left its imprint on 20th century society. There should also be little doubt that socioeconomic, cultural, and political trends have shaped the methods and content of the discipline to a large extent. However, an alleged immunity to ideological influences within the profession has obstructed an in-depth examination of the interaction between social forces and psychology. The penetration of the prevalent ideology in the realm of psychological knowledge often results not only in an uncritical acceptance of the status quo but also in an active endorsement of it. Desiderata for a psychology at the service of social change are considered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Traits, tests, and personality research.

Skepticism regarding the utility of personality tests seems widespread in contemporary personality, clinical, and social psychology. Five sources of this skepticism can be identified. First, the trait concept has been widely criticized in the recent literature; since tests are assumed to measure traits, their role in developing psychological theory is also questioned. Second, it is frequently claimed that tests simply don't work very well, that social behavior is largely a function of situational constraints. Third, current enthusiasm for experimental research tends to minimize the importance of individual differences and the tests that are used to assess them. Fourth, behavior therapy and labeling theory have encouraged the view that tests are irrelevant as adjuncts to psychotherapy. Finally, the ease with which test data can be collected encourages mindless research. Each of these issues is reviewed, and arguments are presented to suggest that personality assessment continues to be an intellectually and scientifically defensible enterprise. (70 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)