Comparison about effects of Ce,Sn and Gd additions on as-cast microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg–3.8Zn–2.2Ca (wt%) magnesium alloy

In this paper, the effects of Ce, Sn and Gd additions on the as-cast microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg–3.8Zn–2.2Ca (wt%) magnesium alloy are investigated and compared. The results indicate that adding 1.0 wt% Ce, 1.0 wt% Sn or 1.0 wt% Gd can effectively refine the grains of the Mg–3.8Zn–2.2Ca alloy, and the refinement efficiency of Ce addition is relatively high, followed by the additions of Sn and Gd, respectively. Accordingly, the tensile properties of the as-cast Mg–3.8Zn–2.2Ca alloy are improved by the additions of Ce, Sn or Gd, with the improvement resulting from the Ce addition being best and followed by the additions of Sn and Gd, respectively. In addition, adding 1.0 wt% Ce, 1.0 wt% Sn or 1.0 wt% Gd to the Mg–3.8Zn–2.2Ca alloy can also improve the creep properties of the as-cast alloy. Among the Ce-, Sn- and Gd-containing alloys, the creep properties of the Sn- and Gd-containing alloys are similar but lower than that of the Ce-containing alloy.     

Creep and fracture behavior of as-cast Mg–11Y–5Gd–2Zn–0.5Zr (wt%)

The tensile-creep and creep–fracture behavior of as-cast Mg–11Y–5Gd–2Zn–0.5Zr (wt%) (WGZ1152) was investigated at temperatures between 523 and 598 K (0.58–0.66T _m) and stresses between 30 and 140 MPa. The creep stress exponent was close to five, suggesting that dislocation creep was the dominant creep mechanism. The activation energy for creep (233 ± 18 kJ/mol) was higher than that for self-diffusion in magnesium, and was believed to be associated with cross-slip, which was the dominant thermally-aided creep mechanism. This was consistent with the surface observations, which suggested non-basal slip and cross-slip were active at 573 K. The minimum creep rate and fracture time values fit the original and modified Monkman–Grant models. In situ creep experiments highlighted the intergranular cracking evolution. The creep properties and behavior were compared with those for other high-temperature creep-resistant Mg alloys such as WE54-T6 and HZ32-T5.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg–Gd–Zr alloys with low gadolinium contents

Mg–xGd–0.6Zr (x = 2, 4, and 6% mass fraction) alloys were synthesized by semi-continuous casting process. The effects of gadolinium content and aging time on microstructures and mechanical properties of the Mg–xGd–0.6Zr alloys were investigated. The results show that the microstructures of the as-cast GKx (x = 2, 4, and 6%) alloys are typical grain structures and no Gd dendritic segregation. In as-cast Mg–6Gd–0.6Zr alloy, the second phases Mg_5.05Gd, Mg₂Gd, and Mg₃Gd will form due to non-equilibrium solidification during the casting process, and these second phases will disappear after hot-extrusion. The residual compressive stress exists in alloys after extrusion and increases with increasing Gd content. The existence of residual compressive stress contributes to the tensile strength. The elongation of all extruded alloys is over 30%, and the ultimate and yield tensile strength of the Mg–6Gd–0.6Zr alloy are 237 and 168 MPa, respectively. After isothermal aging for 10 h, the strength of extruded Mg–6Gd–0.6Zr alloys increases slightly, however, the elongation of alloys rarely decreases. The fracture mechanism of all studied alloys is ductile fracture.     

Effect of initial temper on the creep behavior of a Mg–Gd–Nd–Zr alloy

The effect of initial temper on the tensile creep behavior of a cast Mg–Gd–Nd–Zr alloy has been investigated. Specimens in unaged, underaged and peak-aged conditions exhibit a sigmoidal creep stage between the primary and steady-state creep stage, while the overaged specimens have no such creep stage. Transmission electron microscope observations revealed that sigmoidal creep stage was induced by the dynamic precipitation in the microstructure, and the rapid formation of β₁-phase and β-phase plates takes responsibility for the softening of material in this stage. Comparative evaluation of creep properties of the specimens showed that alloy in overaged condition had creep resistance superior to those in other conditions. Stress and temperature dependence of the steady-state creep rate were studied over a temperature range of 250–300 °C and stress range of 50–100 MPa, and a dislocation creep mechanism was proposed for the alloy.     

Comparison about as-cast microstructures and mechanical properties of Mg–4Y–1.2Mn–0.9Sc and Mg–4Y–1.2Mn–1Zn (wt%) magnesium alloys

In this article, the as-cast microstructures and mechanical properties of the Mg–4Y–1.2Mn–0.9Sc and Mg–4Y–1.2Mn–1Zn (wt%) magnesium alloys are investigated and compared. The results indicate that the Sc-containing alloy is mainly composed of α-Mg and fine particle-like Mg₂₄Y₅, Mn₁₂Y, and Mn₂Sc phases, while the Zn-containing alloy mainly consists of α-Mg and coarse Mg₁₂YZn phases with a continuous network. Furthermore, the grains of the Zn-containing alloy are relatively finer than those of the Sc-containing alloy. In addition, the Sc-containing alloy exhibits relatively higher tensile properties at room temperature and 300 °C than the Zn-containing alloy. However, the creep properties at 300 °C and 30 MPa for 100 h for the Sc-containing alloy are relatively lower than those for the Zn-containing alloy.     

Dislocation analysis of die-cast Mg–Al–Ca alloy after creep deformation

Tensile creep tests were combined with detailed transmission electron microscopy in order to characterize the dislocation movements during creep and to explain the creep properties of the Mg–Al–Ca AX52 die-cast alloy at 473 K and stresses from 15 to 70 MPa. TEM observations indicate that dislocations are generated within the primary α-Mg grain in the die-casting process, which consist of both the basal and non-basal segments. The basal segments of dislocations are able to bow out and glide on the basal planes under the influence of a stress, and the jogs follow the basal segments with the help of climb during creep. The creep mechanism for the alloy is deduced as dislocation climb due to the formation of sub-boundaries during creep, while the easy glide of the basal segments of dislocations is controlling the creep rates immediately after the stress application of creep tests.     

Steady state creep and creep recovery behaviours of pre-aging Al–Si alloys

The creep and creep recovery of pre-aging Al–1 wt.%Si and Al–1 wt.%Si–0.1 wt.%Zr–0.1 wt.%Ti alloys have been investigated at room temperature under different constant stresses. The aging temperature dependence of steady creep rate, _st, and the recovery strain rate, π, show that under the same test conditions first alloy yields creep or creep recovery rates much higher as compared with those of second alloy. The stress exponent n was found to change from 2.5 to 7.43 and 4.57 to 11.99 for two alloys, respectively, characterizing dislocation slipping mechanism. The activation energies of steady state creep of the two alloys were found to be 78.4 kJ/mol and 32.8 kJ/mol for Al–Si and Al–Si–Zr–Ti alloys, respectively. The microstructure of the samples studied was investigated by optical and transmission electron microscopy (TEM).     

Effect of the long periodic stacking structure and W-phase on the microstructures and mechanical properties of the Mg–8Gd–xZn–0.4Zr alloys

Microstructures and mechanical properties of the Mg–8Gd–xZn–0.4Zr (x = 0, 1 and 3 wt.%) alloys, in the as-cast condition and the as-extruded condition, have been investigated. The results show that both the 14H long periodic stacking structure and the W-phase coexist together in the cast Zn-containing alloys. The volume fraction of the W-phase increases with increasing the addition of Zn. This phase is the crack source of the fracture. The 6H long periodic stacking structure is observed in the extruded Zn-containing alloys. The Mg–8Gd–1Zn–0.4Zr alloy exhibits the highest elongation, and the value of its elongation is 130% at 300 °C due to the refined microstructure. The W-phase plays an important role in improving the mechanical properties via pinning the movement of the grains at elevated temperature.     

Effects of Sn addition on as-cast microstructure, mechanical properties and casting fluidity of ZA84 magnesium alloy

The effects of Sn addition on the as-cast microstructure, mechanical properties and casting fluidity of the ZA84 magnesium alloy are investigated. The results indicate that adding 0.5–2.0 wt.%Sn to the ZA84 alloy not only can result in the formation of Mg₂Sn phase but also can refine the Mg₃₂(Al, Zn)₄₉ phase and suppress the formation of Mg₃₂(Al, Zn)₄₉ phase, and with the increase of Sn amount from 0.5 wt.% to 2.0 wt.%, the morphology of Mg₃₂(Al, Zn)₄₉ phase gradually changes from coarse continuous and/or quasi-continuous net to relatively fine quasi-continuous and/or disconnected shapes. In addition, adding 0.5–2.0 wt.%Sn to the ZA84 alloy can improve the tensile and creep properties, and casting fluidity of the alloy. Among the Sn-containing ZA84 alloys, the ZA84 alloy added 1.0 wt.%Sn exhibits the best ultimate tensile strength, elongation and casting fluidity while the ZA84 alloy added 2.0 wt.%Sn has the best yield strength and creep properties.     

Structural characteristics and elevated temperature mechanical properties of AJ62 Mg alloy

Structure and mechanical properties of the novel casting AJ62 (Mg–6Al–2Sr) alloy developed for elevated temperature applications were studied. The AJ62 alloy was compared to commercial casting AZ91 (Mg–9Al–1Zn) and WE43 (Mg–4Y–3RE) alloys. The structure was examined by scanning electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction and energy dispersive spectrometry. Mechanical properties were characterized by Viskers hardness measurements in the as-cast state and after a long-term heat treatment at 250 °C/150 hours. Compressive mechanical tests were also carried out both at room and elevated temperatures. Compressive creep tests were conducted at a temperature of 250 °C and compressive stresses of 60, 100 and 140 MPa. The structure of the AJ62 alloy consisted of primary α-Mg dendrites and interdendritic nework of the Al₄Sr and massive Al₃Mg₁₃Sr phases. By increasing the cooling rate during solidification from 10 and 120 K/s the average dendrite arm thickness decreased from 18 to 5 μm and the total volume fraction of the interdendritic phases from 20% to 30%. Both factors slightly increased hardness and compressive strength. The room temperature compressive strength and hardness of the alloy solidified at 30 K/s were 298 MPa and 50 HV 5, i.e. similar to those of the as-cast WE43 alloy and lower than those of the AZ91 alloy. At 250 °C the compressive strength of the AJ62 alloy decreased by 50 MPa, whereas those of the AZ91 and WE43 alloys by 100 and 20 MPa, respectively. The creep rate of the AJ62 alloy was higher than that of the WE43 alloy, but significantly lower in comparison with the AZ91 alloy. Different thermal stabilities of the alloys were discussed and related to structural changes during elevated temperature expositions.     

Effect of Mn on damping capacities, mechanical properties, and corrosion behaviour of high damping Mg–3 wt.%Ni based alloy

The effect of Mn on the damping capacities, mechanical properties, and corrosion behaviour of high damping Mg–3 wt.%Ni based alloys has been studied. The damping vs. strain amplitude spectrum of the studied alloys could be divided into three parts. The strain amplitude weakly dependent part appears again when the microplastic strain occurs at high strain amplitude. The mechanical properties of as-cast Mg–3 wt.%Ni alloy could be improved by the addition of Mn, which is due to the refinement of α-Mg dendrites and solid solution strengthening by Mn. In addition, the corrosion resistance of the alloys could also be improved remarkably by the addition of Mn.     

Microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg–5Li–3Al–2Zn–<Emphasis Type="Italic">x</Emphasis>RE alloys

Mg–5Li–3Al–2Zn–xRE alloys were prepared. The microstructure and mechanical properties of as-cast and wrought specimens were studied. RE elements in Mg–5Li–3Al–2Zn alloy cause the microstructure refinement and the formation of Al₃La, which bring about the improvement of mechanical properties of alloys. The optimal RE content for Mg–5Li–3Al–2Zn alloy is 2 wt%, which makes the microstructure the finest and the mechanical properties the best. The further increase of RE content makes the microstructure be coarsened and the morphology of Al₃La change from particular to rod-like and pearlite-like eutectic shape, leading to the poor mechanical properties of alloys.     

Dry sliding wear behaviour of Al–12Si–4Mg alloy with cerium addition

The purpose of this work is to understand the effect of cerium addition on wear resistance behaviour of as-cast alloys. Al–12Si–4 Mg alloys with 1–5 wt% cerium addition were prepared using the casting technique. A sliding wear test was carried out under applied loads of 10 N, 30 N and 50 N at a fixed sliding speed of 1 m/s using a pin-on-disc configuration. The wear test was conducted in dry conditions at room temperature of 25 °C. Detailed analysis of the microstructure, worn surface, collected debris and microhardness was undertaken in order to investigate the differences between the as-cast alloys with different levels of cerium addition. The addition of 1–5 wt% cerium was found to lead to the precipitation of intermetallic phases (Al–Ce), resulting a needle-like structures. Increasing cerium content up to 2 wt% improved both wear resistance and microhardness of as-cast alloys. Addition of more than 2 wt% cerium, however, led to a decrease in microhardness, resulting in lower wear resistance of the alloys. Moderate wear was observed at all loads, with specific wear rates (K′) ranging from 6.82 × 10⁻⁵ with 2 wt% Ce at applied load of 50 N to 21.48 × 10⁻⁵ mm³/N m without added Ce at an applied load of 10 N. Based on K′ ranges, the as-cast alloys exhibited moderate wear regimes, and the mechanism of wear is a combination of abrasion and adhesion. Alloy containing 2 wt% Ce, with the highest hardness and lowest K′ value, showed the greatest wear resistance.     

Effects of minor Zr and Sr on as-cast microstructure and mechanical properties of Mg–3Ce–1.2Mn–1Zn (wt%) magnesium alloy

The effects of minor Zr and Sr on the as-cast microstructure and mechanical properties of the Mg–3Ce–1.2Mn–1Zn (wt%) alloy were investigated. The results indicate that adding minor Zr and/or Sr to the Mg–3Ce–1.2Mn–1Zn alloy does not cause an obvious change in the morphology and distribution of the Mg₁₂Ce phase. However, the grains of the Zr- and/or Sr-containing alloys are effectively refined. Among the Zr- and/or Sr-containing alloys, the grains of the alloy with the addition of 0.5 wt%Zr + 0.1 wt%Sr are the finest. Furthermore, adding minor Zr and/or Sr to the Mg–3Ce–1.2Mn–1Zn alloy can improve the tensile properties. Among the Zr- and/or Sr-containing alloys, the alloy with the addition of 0.5 wt%Zr + 0.1 wt%Sr obtains the optimum tensile properties. In addition, adding minor Zr and/or Sr to the Mg–3Ce–1.2Mn–1Zn alloy also can improve the creep properties, and the creep properties of the three alloys with the additions of 0.5 wt%Zr + 0.1 wt%Sr, 0.5 wt%Zr, and 0.1 wt%Sr are similar.     

Enhancement of tensile ductility and stretch formability of magnesium by addition of 0.2 wt%(0.035 at%)Ce

Mg–0.2 wt%(0.035 at.%)Ce alloy was hot-rolled and its mechanical properties were investigated by conducting tensile and Erichsen tests at room temperature and 433 K. The rolled Mg–Ce alloy exhibited greater elongation to failure and higher stretch formability than the rolled pure Mg. This was attributed to a reduction in basal texture intensity and the splitting of the basal plane by the addition of a small amount of Ce (0.2 wt%). Also, the small amount of Ce strongly affected the recrystallization behavior during hot rolling. Microstructural observation revealed that the prismatic slip was activated in the Mg–Ce alloy. The enhancement of the non-basal slip by the addition of Ce was not attributed to a reduction in the c/a ratio. An increase in stacking fault energy due to the addition of Ce is suggested to play a vital role in the activation of the non-basal slip.     

Structure and mechanical properties of extruded Mg–Gd based alloy sheet

The Mg–8Gd–2Y–1Nd–0.3Zn–0.6Zr (wt.%) alloy sheet was prepared by hot extrusion technique, and the structure and mechanical properties of the extruded alloy were investigated. The results show that the alloy in different states is mainly composed of α-Mg solid solution and secondary phases of Mg₅RE and Mg₂₄RE₅ (RE = Gd, Y and Nd). At aging temperatures from 200 °C to 300 °C the alloy exhibits obvious age-hardening response. Great improvement of mechanical properties is observed in the peak-aged state alloy (aged at 200 °C for 60 h), the ultimate tensile strength (σ_b), tensile yield strength (σ_0.2) and elongation () are 376 MPa, 270 MPa and 14.2% at room temperature (RT), and 206 MPa, 153 MPa and 25.4% at 300 °C, respectively, the alloy exhibits high thermal stability.     

Creep deformation mechanism of magnesium-based alloys

Two heat-resistant magnesium alloys AJC421 and Mg-2Nd were prepared. Both as-cast Mg-2Nd and AJC421 alloys exhibited good creep resistance in comparison with commonly used magnesium alloys. The improvement in creep properties through Nd addition to pure magnesium is attributed to both solid solution and precipitation hardening. The stress exponents of 4.5–5.5 and activation energies of 70.0–96.0 kJ/mol obtained from the as-cast Mg-2Nd alloy at low temperatures and low stresses indicate the five power law can be used for predicting the creep mechanism. The additions of alkaline earth elements Sr and Ca into Mg–Al alloys suppress the discontinuous precipitation of Mg₁₇Al₁₂ and form thermal-stable intermediate phases at grain boundaries, leading to effective restriction to grain boundary sliding and migration. However, the mechanism responsible for creep deformation of Mg–Al based alloys with Ca and Sr additions is not consistent with the results of microstructure observations performed on the alloys before and after creep tests.     

Effects of Ca additions on the microstructural stability and mechanical properties of Mg–5%Sn alloy

Mg–Sn based alloys have great potential for high temperature applications because of the formation of the thermally stable Mg₂Sn phase in the as-cast condition. In the present investigation, for further enhancement of the mechanical properties, 0.7, 1.4 and 2 wt.% of Ca was added to the base Mg–5%Sn alloy. The dendritic structure of the base alloy was refined after the addition of Ca. It was found that the Mg–5%Sn–2%Ca alloy had the highest hardness, strength, and creep resistance among all tested materials. This is attributed to the higher volume fraction of CaMgSn second phase particles which act as the main strengthening agent in the investigated system. Results also showed that while long-term annealing treatment softened the base Mg–5Sn alloy, there was not much change in the hardness and strength of the Ca-containing materials, implying that CaMgSn intermetallic particles have successfully increased the microstructural stability of the materials.     

Microstructures and mechanical properties of Mg–8Gd–0.6Zr–<Emphasis Type="Italic">x</Emphasis>Nd (<Emphasis Type="Italic">x</Emphasis> = 0, 1, 2 and 3 mass%) alloys

Mg–8Gd–0.6Zr–xNd (x = 0, 1, 2 and 3 mass%) alloys were prepared by metal mould casting method, and the microstructures, age hardening responses and mechanical properties have been investigated. The microhardness of the as-cast alloys is increased with increasing Nd content. The age hardening behavior and mechanical properties are enhanced significantly by adding Nd element. The peak ageing hardness of the Mg–8Gd–0.6Zr–3Nd alloy is 103, it is about 1.3 times more than that of the Mg–8Gd–0.6Zr alloy. The aged Mg–8Gd–0.6Zr–3Nd alloy exhibits maximum ultimate tensile strength and yield strength, and the values are 271 and 205 MPa at room temperature, 205 MPa and 150 MPa at 250 °C, respectively. Which are about 2 times higher than those of Mg–8Gd–0.6Zr alloy. The improved hardness and strength are mainly attributed to the fine dispersiveness of Mg₅RE and Mg₁₂RE precipitates in the alloy.     

The effects of calcium and yttrium additions on the microstructure,mechanical properties and biocompatibility of biodegradable magnesium alloys

In this study, the effects of calcium (Ca) and yttrium (Y) on the microstructure, mechanical properties, corrosion behaviour and biocompatibility of magnesium (Mg) alloys, i.e. Mg–xCa (x = 0.5, 1.0, 2.0, 5.0, 10.0, 15.0 and 20.0%, wt%, hereafter) and Mg–1Ca–1Y, were investigated. Optical microscopy, X-ray diffractometry (XRD), compressive and Vickers hardness testing were used for the characterisation and evaluation of the microstructure and mechanical properties. The in vitro cytotoxicity of the alloys was assessed using osteoblast-like SaOS2 cells. The corrosion behaviour of these alloys was evaluated by soaking the alloys in simulated body fluid (SBF) and modified minimum essential medium (MMEM) at 37 °C in a humidified atmosphere with 5% CO₂. Results indicated that the increase of the Ca content enhances the compressive strength, elastic modulus and hardness of the Mg–Ca alloys, but deteriorates the ductility, corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of the Mg–Ca alloys. The Y addition leads to an increase in the ductility; but a decrease in the compressive strength, hardness, corrosion resistance and biocompatibility of the Mg–1Ca–1Y alloy when compared to the Mg–1Ca alloy. Solutions of SBF and MMEM with the immersion of Mg–xCa and Mg–1Ca–1Y alloys show strong alkalisation. Our research results indicate that Mg–xCa alloys with Ca additions less than 1.0 wt% exhibited good biocompatibility, low corrosion rate as well as appropriate elastic modulus and strength; whilst the Y is not a proper element for Mg alloys for biomedical application due to its negative effects to the corrosion resistance and biocompatibility.