Synthesis and characterization of poly(l-glutamic acid)-block-poly(l-phenylalanine)

Poly(γ-benzyl l-glutamate)-block-poly(l-phenylalanine) was prepared via the ring opening polymerization of γ-benzyl l-glutamate N-carboxyanhydride and l-phenylalanine N-carboxyanhydride using n-butylamine·HCl as an initiator for the living polymerization. Polymerization was confirmed by ¹H-nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and matrix assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight mass spectroscopy. After deprotection, the vesicular nanostructure of poly(l-glutamic acid)-block-poly(l-phenylalanine) particles was examined by transmission electron microscopy and dynamic light scattering. The pH-dependent properties of the nanoparticles were evaluated by means of ζ-potential and transmittance measurements. The results showed that the block copolypeptide could be prepared using simple techniques. Moreover, the easily prepared PGA-PPA block copolypeptide showed pH-dependent properties due to changes in the PGA ionization state as a function of pH; this characteristic could potentially be exploited for drug delivery applications.     

Controlled crystal nucleation in the melt-crystallization of poly(l-lactide) and poly(l-lactide)/poly(d-lactide) stereocomplex

Among the various inorganic nucleators examined, Talc and an aluminum complex of a phosphoric ester combined with hydrotalcite (NA) were found to be effective for the melt-crystallization of poly(l-lactide) (PLLA) and PLLA/poly(d-lactide) (PDLA) stereo mixture, respectively. NA (1.0 phr (per one hundred resin)) can exclusively nucleate the stereocomplex crystals, while Talc cannot suppress the homo crystallization of PLLA and PDLA in the stereo mixture. Double use of Talc and NA (in 1.0 phr each) is highly effective for enhancing the crystallization temperature of the stereo complex without forming the homo crystals. The stereocomplex crystals nucleated by NA show a significantly lower melting temperature (207 °C) than the single crystal of the stereocomplex (230 °C) in spite of recording a large heat of crystallization ΔH_c (54 J/g). Photomicrographic study suggests that the spherulites with a symmetric morphology are formed in the stereo mixture added with NA while the spherulites do not grow in size in the mixture added with Talc. The exclusive growth of the stereocomplex crystals by the melt-crystallization process will open a processing window for the PLLA/PDLA.     

Thermal degradation of poly(l-lactide): effect of alkali earth metal oxides for selective l,l-lactide formation

To achieve the feed stock recycling of poly(l-lactide) (PLLA) to l,l-lactide, PLLA composites including alkali earth metal oxides, such as calcium oxide (CaO) and magnesium oxide (MgO), were prepared and the effect of such metal oxides on the thermal degradation was investigated from the viewpoint of selective l,l-lactide formation. Metal oxides both lowered the degradation temperature range of PLLA and completely suppressed the production of oligomers other than lactides. CaO markedly lowered the degradation temperature, but caused some racemization of lactide, especially in a temperature range lower than 250 °C. Interestingly, with MgO racemization was avoided even in the lower temperature range. It is considered that the effect of MgO on the racemization is due to the lower basicity of Mg compared to Ca. At temperatures lower than 270 °C, the pyrolysis of PLLA/MgO (5 wt%) composite occurred smoothly causing unzipping depolymerization, resulting in selective l,l-lactide production. A degradation mechanism was discussed based on the results of kinetic analysis. A practical approach for the selective production of l,l-lactide from PLLA is proposed by using the PLLA/MgO composite.     

Transcrystalline structures of poly(l-lactide)

Poly(l-lactide) (PLLA) film containing transcrystalline (TC) structures can easily be obtained by placing PLLA films melted between two poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (PTFE) sheets, followed by isothermal crystallization at 122 °C. The fine structures of the PLLA-TC film were studied by various structural techniques such as X-ray diffractometry, optical microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. We also examined the purification effect upon the morphology of PLLA-TC film. The formation of the TC structures revealed that one-dimensional spherulitic growth occurred from the assembling impurities as nucleation agent near the PTFE substrate in the heterogeneous nucleation system. We found that the b-axis of PLLA crystal was parallel to the lamellae growth direction confirmed using X-ray diffraction. The precipitated PLLA film crystallized in a similar process exhibited scanty TC textures, suggesting that the existence of impurity in the PLLA sample was an important factor for the formation of those structures.     

Mechanical properties, morphologies, and crystallization behavior of plasticized poly(l-lactide)/poly(butylene succinate-co-l-lactate) blends

The blends of poly(l-lactide) (PLLA) with poly(butylene succinate-co-l-lactate) (PBSL) containing the lactate unit of ca. 3 mol% and Rikemal PL710 (RKM) which is a plasticizer mainly composed of diglycerine tetraacetate were prepared by melt-mixing and subsequent injection molding. The studied RKM content of the PLLA/PBSL/RKM blends was 0-20 wt%, and the PLLA/PBSL weight ratio was 100/0 to 80/20. Although elongation at break in the tensile test did not increase by the addition of 10 wt% RKM to PLLA, the addition of a small amount of PBSL to the PLLA/RKM blend caused a considerable increase of the elongation. The SEM and DSC analyses revealed that all the PLLA/PBSL/RKM blends are immiscible blends where the PBSL particles are finely dispersed, and that there is some compatibility between PLLA-rich phase and PBSL-rich phase in the amorphous state when the RKM content is 20 wt%. As a result of investigation of the crystallization behavior by DSC and polarized optical microscopic measurements, it was revealed that the addition of RKM causes the acceleration of crystalline growth rate at a lower annealing temperature, and the addition of PBSL mainly enhances the formation of PLLA crystal nucleus.     

Crystallization and morphology of stereocomplexes in nonequimolar mixtures of poly(l-lactic acid) with excess poly(d-lactic acid)

Crystallization of nonequimolar compositions of poly(d-lactic acid) with low-molecular-weight poly(l-lactic acid) (PDLA/LM_w-PLLA) blends leads to formation of various fractions of stereocomplexed PLA (sc-crystallites) and homocrystallites (PDLA or PLLA). For the PDLA/LM_w-PLLA blends within the composition window of LM_w-PLLA content between 30 and 50 wt%, only sc-crystal exists and no homocrystal is present. On the other hand, for PDLA/LM_w-PLLA blends with excess PDLA, e.g. PDLA/LM_w-PLLA = 90/10, atomic-force microscopy (AFM) characterization on various stages of crystallization of sc-PLA crystal with PDLA homocrystal shows a repetitive stacking of excess PDLA on pre-formed sc-PLA crystal serving as crystallizing templates. The crystallization initially begins with string-like (fibril-like) PDLA lamellae, followed with PDLA aggregating on sc-PLA crystal into a bead-on-string crystal, then growing to thicker irregularly-shaped dough-like lamellae. Repetitive growth cycle from strings to bead-on-string lamellae continues on top of the dough-like lamellae as new substrates, until ending impingement of the PDLA spherulites.     

Functionalized micelles from new ABC polyglycidol-poly(ethylene oxide)-poly(d,l-lactide) terpolymers

New ABC type terpolymers of poly(ethoxyethyl glycidyl ether)/poly(ethylene oxide)/poly(d,l-lactide) were obtained by multi-mode anionic polymerization. After successive deprotection of the ethoxyethyl groups from the first block, highly hydroxyl functionalized copolymers of polyglycidol/poly(ethylene oxide)/poly(d,l-lactide) were obtained. These copolymers form elongated ellipsoidal micelles by direct dissolution in water. The micelles consist of a poly(d,l-lactide) core and stabilizing shell of polyglycidol/poly(ethylene oxide). The hydroxyl groups of polyglycidol blocks situated at the micelle surface provide high functionality, which could be engaged in further chemical modification resulting in a potential drug targeting agents. The micellization process of the copolymers in aqueous media was studied by hydrophobic dye solubilization, static and dynamic light scattering, and transmission electron microscopy.     

Broadband dielectric spectroscopic characterization of the hydrolytic degradation of carboxylic acid-terminated poly(d,l-lactide) materials

Broadband dielectric spectroscopy was used to examine carboxylic acid-terminated poly(d,l-lactide) samples that were hydrolytically degraded in 7.4 pH phosphate buffer solutions at 37 °C. The dielectric spectral signatures of degraded samples were considerably more distinct than those of undegraded samples and a T_g-related relaxation associated with long range chain segmental mobility was seen. For both degraded and undegraded samples, a relaxation peak just beneath a DSC-based T_g was observed, which shifts to higher frequency with increasing temperature. Thus, this feature is assigned as the glass transition as viewed from the dielectric relaxation perspective. Linear segments on log-log plots of loss permittivity vs. frequency, in the low frequency regime, are attributed to d.c. conductivity. An upward shift in relaxation peak maximum, f_max, observed especially after 145 d of immersion in buffer, implies a decrease in the time scale of long range segmental motions with increased degradation time.Permittivity data for degraded and undegraded materials were fitted to the Havriliak-Negami equation with subtraction of the d.c. conductivity contribution to uncover pure relaxation peaks. Parameters extracted from these fits were used to construct Vogel-Fulcher-Tammann-Hesse (VFTH) curves and distribution of relaxation time, G(τ), curves for all samples. It was seen that the relaxation times for the α-transition in both degraded and undegraded samples showed VFTH temperature behavior. G(τ) curves showed a general broadening and shift to lower τ with degradation, which can be explained in terms of a broadening of molecular weight within degraded samples and faster chain motions.     

A study on cytocompatible poly(chitosan-g-l-lactic acid)

A novel cytocompatible graft copolymer of chitosan and l-lactic acid (CL) was prepared by grafting l-lactic acid onto the amino groups in chitosan without a catalyst. The structures of the CL graft copolymers were characterized by FTIR, ¹³C-NMR and X-ray measurements. Degree of substitution and side-chain length were evaluated from salicylaldehyde and elemental analysis. The tensile strength and water uptake of the CL copolymers films were investigated as a function of feed ratio of LA/CS. The influence of pH on the swelling behavior of the copolymer films was determined and interpreted. Fibroblast culture was performed to evaluate cell proliferation on the copolymers films. The results showed that the cell growth rate on the copolymers films is faster than chitosan obviously.     

Dielectric study on dynamics and conformation of poly(d,l-lactic acid) in dilute and semi-dilute solutions

Fractionated samples of d,l-poly(lactic acid) (PLA) were prepared and the dielectric normal mode relaxation was studied for dilute and semi-dilute solutions of the PLA in a good solvent benzene. Results indicate that in the dilute regime the normal mode relaxation time is proportional to [η]M_w in agreement with the Rouse-Zimm theory, where [η] and M_w denote the intrinsic viscosity and weight average molecular weight, respectively. The dielectric relaxation strength which is proportional to the mean square end-to-end distance 〈r²〉 increases with increasing M_w with the power of 2ν, where ν is the excluded volume parameter determined from [η]. The relaxation time in the semi-dilute regime increases with increasing concentration C due to increases of the entanglement density and the friction coefficient. The relaxation time corrected to the iso-friction state agrees approximately with the dynamic scaling theories. The relaxation strength decreases with increasing concentration indicating that 〈r²〉 decreases on account of the screening of the excluded volume effect. The concentration dependence of 〈r²〉 agrees approximately with the scaling theory proposed by Daoud and Jannink.     

Melt intercalation of poly(l-lactide) chains into clay galleries

The melt intercalation of poly(l-lactide) (PLLA) chains into silicate galleries has been investigated via a melting process without any shearing force at elevated temperature. Under the melting process, the incorporation of various types of organo-modified montmorillonites into PLLA matrix lead to the increase in the basal spacing of clay particles in different manner without delamination into individual layers. The changes in layer-stacked structures of the clay particles in the PLLA matrix were examined by use of wide-angle X-ray diffraction and transmission electron microscopy. The effects of clay content in PLLA matrix and clay surfactants on the melt intercalation of PLLA were discussed in terms of chain mobility.     

pH-dependent self-assembly of amphiphilic poly(l-glutamic acid)-block-poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) copolymers

A novel biodegradable AB-type diblock copolymer poly(L-lactic- co-glycolic acid)-block-poly(l-glutamic acid) (PLGA-b-PGA) was synthesized by a macromolecular coupling reaction between carboxyl-terminated PLGA and amino-terminated poly(γ-benzyl-glutamate) (PBLG) and the subsequent elimination of the protecting benzyl group. The structures of PLGA-PGA and its precursors were confirmed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), ¹H nuclear magnetic resonance (¹H NMR) spectroscopy and gel permeation chromatography (GPC). This synthetic strategy simplified a former synthesis process of polypeptide-poly(l-lactic acid)(PLA); by using this new synthetic route the molecular weight and block ratio of PLGA-PGA could be easily controlled by adjusting the chain length of PLGA/PGA. The pH sensitivity and self-assembly behavior of PLGA-PGA copolymer were investigated by environmental scanning electron microscopy (ESEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM) and dynamic light scattering (DLS). The results showed that the copolymer exhibited high pH responses, and the morphologies of the copolymer aggregates underwent four stages orderly with the pH increase (pH = 3-9): a disorganized form, micelles, semi-vesicles with thick walls and vesicles. Such a pH-dependent self-assembly process of the copolymer is promising for drug control release and bio-applications.     

Crystallization behavior of poly(l-lactic acid)

The crystallization behavior of poly(l-lactic acid) was studied in the range of 80-160 °C. The peak crystallization time (τ_p) was defined and obtained from the crystallization isotherm measured with a differential scanning calorimeter (DSC). Isothermal crystallization temperature (T_c) dependence of log(τ_p) discretely changed at 113 °C (= T_b). The linear growth rate of spherulite, G, was measured with a polarizing microscope. The T_c dependence of G and the size of the spherulite also discretely changed at T_b. Crystal structures for samples isothermally crystallized at temperatures which were higher and lower than T_b were orthorhombic (α-form) and trigonal (β-form), respectively. The discrete change of the crystallization behavior was explained by the formation of different crystal.     

The influence of hydroxyapatite (HA) microparticles (m) and nanoparticles (n) on the thermal and dynamic mechanical properties of poly-l-lactide

In this paper, we explore the effects of hydroxyapatite microparticles and nanoparticles on the thermal and dynamic mechanical properties of injection moulded bioresorbable poly-l-lactide/hydroxyapatite composites intended for use in orthopaedics. The T_g of the nanocomposites were lower than those of the microcomposites. This was thought to be due to the larger surface area of well dispersed nanoparticles in the polymer matrix, leading to a larger interfacial area. The as-moulded composites were largely amorphous, however, during thermal analysis the polymer in the nanocomposites crystallized more and had lower cold crystallization temperature than that in the microcomposites since the nanoparticles acted as more effective nucleating agents. The storage moduli at 37 °C of the nanocomposites were higher than those of the microcomposites. The storage moduli of the composites approached the lower range of storage modulus for cortical bone and may prevent stress shielding during bone regeneration.     

Hydrolytic degradation of poly(d,l-lactide) as a function of end group: Carboxylic acid vs. hydroxyl

d,l-Lactide was initiated with 1,4-butanediol in the presence of stannous octoate catalyst to provide hydroxyl-terminated poly(d,l-lactide) at 5000 and 20,000 g/mol. Portions of these materials were reacted with succinic anhydride in the presence of 1-methylimidazole to convert the hydroxyl functionality to succinic acid-terminated polymers in relatively high yield. The four materials were placed in a 7.4 pH buffered saline solution at 37 °C and monitored up to 180 days for their relative moisture uptake and weight loss behaviors. Carboxylic acid functionality displayed a dramatic effect on the moisture uptake behaviors for the 5000 and 20,000 g/mol polymers when compared to their respective hydroxyl functional materials. Carboxylic acid functionality significantly increased the hydrolytic degradation rate and mass loss behavior for the 5000 g/mol material, but did not affect the hydrolytic degradation rate for the higher molecular weight sample. These results suggest that moisture uptake is not the rate limiting step for the hydrolytic degradation high molecular weight poly(d,l-lactide).     

Crystallization behavior of linear 1-arm and 2-arm poly(l-lactide)s: Effects of coinitiators

Linear 1-arm and 2-arm poly(l-lactide) [i.e., poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA)] polymers having relatively low number-average molecular weights (M_n) (≤5 × 10⁴ g mol⁻¹) were synthesized by ring-opening polymerization of l-lactide initiated with tin(II) 2-ethylhexanoate (i.e., stannous octoate) and coinitiators of l-lactic acid, 1-dodecanol (i.e., lauryl alcohol), and ethylene glycol (these PLLA polymers are abbreviated as LA, DN, and EG, respectively). For M_n below 1.5 × 10⁴ g mol⁻¹, non-isothermal crystallization during heating and isothermal spherulite growth were disturbed in linear 2-arm PLLA (EG) compared to those in linear 1-arm PLLA (LA and DN). This finding indicates that the chain directional change, the incorporation of the coinitiator moiety as an impurity in the middle of the molecule, and their mixed effect disturbed the crystallization of linear 2-arm PLLA compared to that of linear 1-arm PLLA, in which the chain direction is unvaried and the coinitiator moiety is incorporated in the chain terminal. Also, the finding strongly suggests that the reported low crystallizability of multi-arm PLLA (arm number ≥ 3) compared to that of linear 1-arm PLLA is caused not only by the presence of branching points but also by the chain directional change, the incorporation of the coinitiator moiety in the middle of the molecule, and their mixed effect. The effects of the chain directional change and the position of the incorporated coinitiator moiety on the crystallization and physical properties of linear 1-arm and 2-arm PLLA decreased with an increase in M_n.     

Crystallization, structure and properties of plasticized poly(l-lactide)

Poly(l-lactide) (PLA) was plasticized with poly(ethylene glycol)s having M_w of 400 and 600 g/mol. In addition to poly(ethyne glycol)s with hydroxyl end groups, monomethyl ethers of poly(ethylene glycol) having M_w of 550 and 750 g/mol, with chains terminated with hydroxyl groups and methyl groups, were used. The effect of different end groups on the plasticization of both amorphous and semicrystalline PLA was studied. The crystallization, structure, thermal and tensile properties of PLA and PLA with 5 and 10 wt% of plasticizers were explored. No marked effect induced by different end groups of plasticizers was found. All the plasticizers used decreased T_g and increased the ability of PLA to cold crystallization. While an amorphous plasticized PLA could be deformed to about 550%, a semicrystalline PLA with the same total plasticizer content exhibited nonuniform plasticization of the amorphous phase and less ability to the plastic deformation. Nevertheless, a 20% elongation at break was achieved for a semicrystalline PLA with 10 wt% of the plasticizer. The plastic deformation of both neat and plasticized PLA was associated with crazing.     

Crystallization of poly(l-lactide-dimethyl siloxane-l-lactide) triblock copolymers and its effect on morphology of microphase separation

This investigation characterizes the molten morphologies following isothermal crystallization of poly(l-lactide-block-dimethyl siloxane-block-l-lactide) triblock copolymers, which were synthesized by ring-opening polymerization of l-lactide using hydroxyl-telechelic PDMS as macroinitiators, via small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The break-out and preservation of the nanostructure of the triblock copolymer depended on the segregation strength, which was manipulated by varying the degree of polymerization. The crystallization kinetics of these semicrystalline copolymers and the effect of isothermal crystallization on their melting behaviors were also studied using DSC, FT-IR and WAXS. The exclusive presence of α-phase PLLA crystallite was verified by identifying the absence of the WAXS diffraction signal at 2θ = 24.5° and the presence of IR absorption at 1749 cm⁻¹ when the PLLA segment of the block copolymers was present as a minor component. The dependence of the crystallization rate (Rc) on the chemical composition of the triblock copolymers reveals that the Rc of the triblock copolymers was lower than that of PLLA homopolymer and the Rc were substantially reduced when the minor component of the crystallizable PLLA domains was dispersed in the PDMS matrix.     

Poly(d,l-lactide)/poly(methyl methacrylate) interpenetrating polymer networks: Synthesis, characterization, and use as precursors to porous polymeric materials

The use of semi-hydrolyzable oligoester-derivatized interpenetrating polymer networks (IPNs) as nanostructured precursors provides a straightforward and versatile approach toward mesoporous networks. Different poly(d,l-lactide) (PLA)/poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA)-based IPNs were synthesized by resorting to the so-called in situ sequential method. The PLA sub-network was first generated from a dihydroxy-telechelic PLA oligomer via an end-linking reaction with Desmodur^® RU as a triisocyanate cross-linker. Subsequently, the methacrylic sub-network was created by free-radical copolymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) and a dimethacrylate (either bisphenol A dimethacrylate or diurethane dimethacrylate) with varying compositions (initial MMA/dimethacrylate composition ranging from 99/1 to 90/10 mol%). Both cross-linking processes were monitored by real-time infrared spectroscopy. The microphase separation developed in IPN precursors was investigated by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). Furthermore, the quantitative hydrolysis of the PLA sub-network, under mild basic conditions, afforded porous methacrylic structures with pore sizes ranging from 10 to 100 nm -at most- thus showing the effective role of cross-linked PLA sub-chains as porogen templates. Pore sizes and pore size distributions were determined by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and thermoporometry via DSC measurements. The mesoporosity of residual networks could be attributed to the good degree of chain interpenetration associated with both sub-networks in IPN precursors, due to their peculiar interlocking framework.     

Spherulite growth of l-lactide copolymers: Effects of tacticity and comonomers

The spherulite growth behavior and mechanism of l-lactide copolymers, poly(l-lactide-co-d-lactide) [P(LLA-DLA)], poly(l-lactide-co-glycolide) [P(LLA-GA)], and poly(l-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) [P(LLA-CL)] have been studied using polarization optical microscopy in comparison with poly(l-lactide) (PLLA) having different molecular weights to elucidate the effects of incorporated comonomer units. The incorporation of comonomer units reduced the radius growth rate of spherulites (G) and increased the induction period of spherulite formation (t_i), irrespective of the kind of comonomer unit. Such effects became remarkable with the content of comonomers. At a crystallization temperature (T_c) of 130 °C, the disturbance effects of comonomers on the spherulite growth decreased in the following order: d-lactide>glycolide>ε-caprolactone, when compared at the same comonomer unit or reciprocal of averaged l-lactyl unit sequence length (l_l). The t_i estimation indicated that the glycolide units have the lowest disturbance effects on the formation of spherulite (crystallite) nuclei. The PLLA having the number-average molecular weight (M_n) exceeding 3.1×10⁴ g mol⁻¹ showed the transition from regime II to regime III at T_c=120 °C, whereas PLLA with the lowest M_n of 9.2×10³ g mol⁻¹ crystallized solely in regime III kinetics and the copolymers excluding P(LLA-DLA) with 3% of d-lactide units crystallized solely according to regime II kinetics. The nucleation and front constant for regime II and III [K_g(II), K_g(III), G₀(II), and G₀(III), respectively] estimated with each (not with a fixed for high-molecular-weight PLLA) decreased with increasing the amount of defects per unit mass of the polymer for crystallization, i.e. with increasing the comonomer content and the density of terminal group through decreasing the molecular weight.