Forming limit diagrams of tubular materials by bulge tests

This study uses bulge tests to establish the forming limit diagram (FLD) of tubular material AA6011. A self-designed bulge forming apparatus of fixed bulge length and a hydraulic test machine with axial feeding are used to carry out the bulge tests. Loading paths corresponding to the strain paths with a constant strain ratio at the pole of the bulging tube are determined by FE simulations linked with a self-compiled subroutine and are used to control the internal pressure and axial feeding punch of the test machine. After bulge tests, the major and minor strains of the grids beside the bursting line on the tube surface are measured to construct the forming limit diagram of the tubes. Furthermore, Swift's diffused necking criterion and Hill's localized necking criterion associated with Hill's non-quadratic yield function are adopted to derive the critical principal strains at the onset of plastic instability. The critical major and minor strains are plotted to construct the forming limit curve (FLC). The effects of the exponent in the Hill's non-quadratic yield function and the normal anisotropy of the material on the yield locus and FLC are discussed. Tensile tests are used to determine the anisotropic values in different directions with respect to the tube axis and the K and n values of the flow stress of the tubular material. The analytical FLCs using the n values obtained by tensile tests and bulge tests are compared with the forming limits from the forming limit experiments.     

日本内高压成形技术进展(英文)

文章回顾了自2003年于日本举行的第一届内高压成形国际会议(TUBEH YDRO2003)后该技术在日本的发展概况。近年来,铝合金热态内高压成形技术得到了较快的发展,利用该技术生产的汽车副车架试制成功,并已应用在轿车上;移动模具的出现提高了内高压胀形极限,使T形三通管制管的成形高度显著提高。文中还讨论了在内高压成形工艺优化、拼焊管内高压成形、锥形管内高压成形、高强钢管内高压成形、液压冲孔、成形极限图及内高压成形设备方面的进展。     

A simple experimental tooling with internal pressure source used for evaluation of material formability in tube hydroforming

Material properties have powerful impact on the tube hydroforming (THF) process and the quality of the deformed tube, so it is important to select proper materials and evaluate the material formability prior to conducting the process. A simplified and applied tooling, which has no use for any external hydraulic pressure source but internal one, was designed for charactering the material formability in THF. A pressurized-fluid supplier is automatically established to provide the internal pressure and axial load synchronously required for THF, and the ratio of the two loads is achieved by proper design of the supplier. As a stand-alone hydraulic bulging fixture, the tooling can be worked on a conventional press, even on a single action press. Free bulge forming (FBF), bulge forming with axial loading (BFAL), free and restrained bulge forming (free and fixed ends) can be fulfilled by the tooling, and furthermore, bulge forming with proportional loading to some extend can be realized. Comparative bulge forming experiments under various forming conditions were carried out with the tooling to validate this project and the results suggest that restrained conditions on the tube ends highly affect the FBF, while the ratio of the two loads dominates the BFAL.     

Warm hydroforming of magnesium alloy tube with large expansion ratio

Process of warm tube hydroforming was experimentally investigated for forming an AZ31B magnesium alloy tubular part with a large expansion ratio.Effects of temperature on the mechanical properties and formability were studied by uniaxial tensile test and hydraulic bulge test.Total elongation increases with temperature up to 250 °C,but uniform elongation and maximum expansion ratio get the highest value at 175 °C.Different axial feeding amounts were applied in experiments to determine the reasonable loading path.A preform with useful wrinkles was then realized and the tubular part with an expansion ratio of 50% was formed.Finally,mechanical condition to produce useful wrinkles is deduced and the result illustrates that useful wrinkles are easier to be obtained for tube with higher strain hardening coefficient value and tubular part with smaller expansion ratio.     

Determination of material properties for hot hydroforming

For the process design of hydroforming in the “hot” temperature range, reliable data are necessary to describe the material behaviour at elevated temperatures under the occurring loads of hot hydroforming processes. State-of-the-art technologies for the investigation of material behaviour, like uniaxial tensile tests or hydraulic bulge tests, do not provide enough similarity with the process of hot hydroforming. This paper describes a new testing technique, capable of realizing high process temperatures and constant strain rates. It represents a further development of the established technology of tube bulge tests. The hardware is described, its functionality is proven and mathematical approaches for the calculation of stress/strain-curves from experimental data are presented.     

Anisotropy and formability of AA5182-0 aluminium alloy sheets

This paper presents a new yield criterion for orthotropic sheet metals and its implementation in a theoretical model of the forming limit diagrams. The equivalent stress equation shows that the shape of the yield surface is defined by eight material parameters. The minimisation of an error-function has been used for the numerical identification of these coefficients. The parameters are established in such a way that the constitutive equation associated to the yield surface reproduces the plastic behaviour of the actual material. The uniaxial yield stresses (σ₀, σ₄₅, σ₉₀), biaxial yield stress (σ_b), uniaxial anisotropy coefficients (r₀, r₄₅, r₉₀) have been used in identification. The new yield criterion has been implemented in the Marciniak-Kuczynski theory in order to predict the limit strains. The theoretical forming limit curves have been compared with the experimental ones. The friction free tests, the hydraulic bulge test (for the positive minor strains) and the tensile test for plane strain and for uniaxial tensile test (for the negative minor strains) are used. The predicted yield surface and forming limit diagrams for AA5182-0 aluminium alloy sheets are in good agreement with the experimental ones.     

A theoretical and experimental study on forming limit diagram for a seamed tube hydroforming

The purpose of this work is to establish the forming limit diagram (FLD) for a seamed tube hydroforming. A new theoretical model is developed to predict the FLD for a seamed tube hydroforming. Based on this theoretical model, the FLD for a seamed tube made of QSTE340 sheet metal is calculated by using the Hosford yield criterion. Some forming limit experiments are performed. A classical free hydroforming tool set is used for obtaining the left hand side forming limit strains, and a novel hydroforming tool set is designed for the right hand side of FLD. The novel device required the simultaneous application of lateral compression force and internal pressure to control the material flow under tension–tension strain states. Furthermore, the suitable loading paths for the left hand side of FLD by theoretical formulas and for the right hand side of FLD by finite element (FE) simulations are calculated. Finally, a comparison between the theoretical results and experimental data is performed. The theoretical predicting results show good agreement with the experimental results.     

Evaluation of tubular materials by a hydraulic bulge test

This paper aims to evaluate the properties of tubular materials by hydraulic bulge tests combined with a newly proposed analytical model. Annealed AA6011 aluminum tubes and SUS409 stainless steel tubes are used for the bulge test. The tube thickness at the pole, bulge height and the internal forming pressure are measured simultaneously during the bulge test. From above experimental data, the effective stress–effective strain relations can be derived by this analytical model assuming the profile of the free bulge region as an elliptical surface. The flow stresses of the tubular materials by this approach are compared with those obtained by the tensile test and Fuchizawa's model. The finite element method is used to conduct the simulations of hydraulic bulge forming with the flow stresses obtained by the above-mentioned models. The analytical results of forming pressures versus bulge heights are compared with the experimental results to validate the approach proposed in this paper.     

Computer simulation and experimental validation of stretch flanging

The axisymmetric stretch flanging process is a common secondary operation in sheet metal stamping. The process is characterized by a uniaxial state of stress at the edge of the flange. An approximate analysis, based on the assumption that the state of stress throughout the flange is mainly uniaxial, is used to model the stretch flanging (second step) process. The approximation is derived from the total strain membrane theory of plasticity which incorporates strain hardening and normal anisotropy of the material. Under such conditions, flangeability is controlled by the tensile elongation of the metal and is limited by localized necking or fracture of the flanged edge. The analysis includes a stretching limit criterion to determine the flanging limit of the material. The influence of prestretching (first step) on flangeability is modeled using the membrane shell theory with axisymmetric deformation to solve the contact condition in stretch forming. Inputs to the model are a desired flange profile, material properties, and sheet thickness. The output includes the feasibility of the flanging operation, any requirements for prestretching and the size of the trim radius needed to successfully flange the profile. The model is verified by experimental results.     

5A06-O aluminium–magnesium alloy sheet warm hydroforming and optimization of process parameters

The uniaxial tensile test of the 5A06-O aluminium–magnesium (Al–Mg) alloy sheet was performed in the temperature range of 20–300 °C to obtain the true stress–true strain curves at different temperatures and strain rates. The constitutive model of 5A06-O Al–Mg alloy sheet with the temperature range from 150 to 300°C was established. Based on the test results, a unique finite element simulation platform for warm hydroforming of 5A06-O Al–Mg alloy was set up using the general finite element software MSC.Marc to simulate warm hydroforming of classic specimen, and a coupled thermo-mechanical finite element model for warm hydroforming of cylindrical cup was built up. Combined with the experiment, the influence of the temperature field distribution and loading conditions on the sheet formability was studied. The results show that the non-isothermal temperature distribution conditions can significantly improve the forming performance of the material. As the temperature increases, the impact of the punching speed on the forming becomes particularly obvious; the optimal values of the fluid pressure and blank holder force required for forming are reduced.     

智能与控制在塑性加工制备与成形中的应用

对材料制备与塑性加工方面的智能控制特点进行了介绍与分析。首先对钢铁、铜及铜合金管材连铸连轧过程控制加工特点进行了阐述 ,其次介绍了镁合金的“轧制 等通道角挤压 拉制”连续加工制备技术和镁合金薄板半固态双辊铸轧工艺。对于薄板增量加工成形技术 ,介绍了飞机整体壁板增量压弯技术、薄板单点无模增量成形技术和多点无模增量成形技术。讨论了薄板可动凹模液压成形技术、异型截面管件液压成形技术和细长杆件空间弯扭成形技术原理。最后对于微小件加工技术进行了简要介绍     

Characterizing steel tube for hydroforming applications

With the increased use of tubular steel products, especially for hydroforming applications, it is important to be able to predict the performance of tube from sheet tensile tests. In the present study, two aluminum killed draw quality (AKDQ) steels and one high strength low alloy (HSLA) steel were evaluated. Tensile properties and plastic strain ratios were measured on sheet material in the longitudinal and transverse directions. Axial tensile tests were performed on material extracted from production tubes. Material from quasi tubes, which are strip material bent to the same curvature as the tubes but not welded or sized, was also tested. Residual stresses in the production and quasi tube were determined by displacement methods. A hydraulic burst test was performed on the production tubes to simulate a hydroforming operation. Effective strains resulting from tubemaking are calculated for two discrete operations: bending and sizing. For the production tubes, a linear relationship was found between a load factor (strength times thickness) and effective sizing strain. The relationship between load factor and residual stress was also linear. Predictions of the maximum pressure and the strain at instability during a hydraulic burst test are shown to compare favorably with experimental values, based on flat sheet properties and tubemaking strains. The prediction of the yield strength in the tube based on flat sheet properties is shown to be fairly accurate when the effective sizing strain is small compared to the effective bending strain.     

Combined tube and double sheet hydroforming for the manufacturing of complex parts

Modern lightweight construction, especially in the automotive industry, requires more and more complex components, which can be manufactured in one process step using the hydroforming technology. The combination of the tube and double sheet hydroforming is a new forming process, where a tube and two blanks are formed simultaneously in a die cavity, combining the advantages of both hydroforming variants. This paper deals with the fundamental considerations and investigations related to connection between tube and double sheet. The finite element analysis and laboratory trials were used in order to design the shape of the die cavity and to avoid wrinkles, material tearing and the collapse of the tube section during forming. The paper will also illustrate an analytical model for the prediction of the edge shape in the constrained bulging of a rectangular cup together with several technical solutions, which enabled a complete forming of the investigated part. Finally, the definition of a hydroforming material factor based on the analytical model of the hydraulic bulging process enables the right choice of sheets with different material strength and thickness for the hydroforming of hybrid components.     

A new experimental approach for obtaining diffuse-strain flow stress curves

A new experimental approach for determining the sheet metal flow stress curve for diffuse necking deformation through the hydraulic bulge expansion (HBE) test is introduced. For this approach, a flat sheet of metal is bulged under the load of hydraulic pressure within the confines of a rigid binder/die tool set of circular die opening. The hydraulic pressure and volume flow rate of the pressurized water entering the die cavity are recorded in real time. Operating under the assumption of thin-walled pressure vessel behavior, the real time data are used to compute the flow stress curve for the material type considered. The novel aspect of the proposed technique is the use of water volume measurement for determining the radius of curvature of the expanding dome. An example flow stress curve for 1.0 mm thick DDQ cold rolled sheet steel is shown to be in good agreement with the flow stress curve obtained through the standard uniaxial tension test. One key advantage of this proposed method is that the analyst may determine the diffuse necking portion of the flow stress curve without employing cumbersome techniques associated with uniaxial tensile test methods. Two disadvantages of the proposed method are the uncertainty associated with having to assume a yield surface, and the error associated with having to assume membrane behavior in the work piece. The introduction of this new method will increase researchers’ access to practical methods for obtaining sheet metal flow stress curves.     

Study on formability of tube hydroforming through elliptical die inserts

This paper proposes a novel experimental approach to evaluate the formability for tube hydroforming under biaxial stretching through elliptical bulging. The idea comes from the hydraulic stretch-drawing tests with elliptical dies for the right hand side of forming limit curve (FLC). Based on the deformation theory and the classical Hosford yield criterion, an analytical model is constructed for the elliptical bulging of tube hydroforming. Then the novel experimental device is designed with five upper elliptical die inserts and one lower die insert used to produce ellipsoidal bulged domes and some experiments are performed. The linear strain paths in different strain states are verified and the right hand side of FLC for roll-formed QSTE340 seamed tube is determined through the proposed experimental approaches. Finally, a comparison between the theoretical results and experimental data is performed. The theoretical predictions show good agreement with the experimental results.     

高强塑性TRIP钢无缝钢管的开发及其内高压成形性能的研究

将已经趋于成熟的TRIP钢生产技术应用到钢管的生产领域,成功开发出具有铁素体、贝氏体、残余奥氏体和少量马氏体组织的薄壁TRIP钢无缝钢管,并利用普通拉伸、管端扩口、环形拉伸以及液压自由膨胀等试验手段对其力学性能及内高压成形性能进行了试验研究。研究结果表明,TRIP钢无缝钢管具有较好的轴向、周向力学性能及内高压成形性能,可以在内高压成形领域中推广应用。     

一种建立板料成形极限应力图的新方法

基于塑性理论建立了比例加载条件下双向拉伸应力应变关系,结合Swift分散性失稳准则,提出了一种建立板料成形极限应力图的方法。分别应用Hill 48和Hosford屈服准则以及单向拉伸性能参数,建立了铝合金板(r<1)和薄钢板(r>1)两种材料的成形极限应力图(FLSD),分析表明,不同的屈服准则的选取对于成形极限应力曲线有不同的影响,对于不同类型的材料屈服准则的影响程度也不同。与由通常的成形极限图(FLD)转换所得到的成形极限应力图(FLSD)进行了对比分析,结果表明,所提出的方法计算过程更为简便,并能较为准确地建立成形极限应力图,可以作为复杂加载路径下的成形极限破裂判据。     

Experimental and numerical investigation of the hydroforming behavior of paperboard

The material behavior of two different types of paperboard was characterized in tensile tests and in a new test device called paperboard bulge test. A particularly adapted hydroforming process was used to produce three-dimensional paperboard structures. Furthermore, an online measurement device to describe the mold-filling behavior is introduced. The experimental results were compared to the results obtained with an FEA investigation. The investigations showed the possibilities of the new forming process, as well as the advantages of FEA methods used to pre-define the process parameters.     

The effect of prebending on the formability in the tube hydroforming process of an aluminum rear subframe

The effects of 2D and 3D prebending on the forming limit in the tube hydroforming process of an automotive rear subframe are evaluated and compared through finite element analyses and experimental tryouts. The influence of the strain path corresponding to each prebending method is discussed in terms of a forming limit diagram (FLD) and a forming limit stress diagram (FLSD). An incremental strain-to-stress transformation scheme to plot the FLSD from the FLD along an arbitrary strain path is proposed. A tube hydroformability testing system designed and manufactured to provide an arbitrary combination of internal pressure and axial feed is introduced. A forming limit diagram of the A6063 aluminum tube material is obtained from free bulging, T-shape forming and cross-shape forming tests using this system.     

中心区减薄的十字形试件拉伸性能研究

中心区减薄的十字形试件拉伸,是实现板料双向拉伸变路径条件下,达到大变形以至破裂的可行试验方法,对于复杂加载路径板料屈服行为及成形极限研究,有重要的试验意义。通过标准单向拉伸试验,对比研究了板材减薄前后单向拉伸性能的变化。对于中心区方形减薄的十字形试件,进行了单臂试件和十字形试件的单向拉伸试验,验证了中心区减薄后应力计算的正确性。