Age Trends in the Development of Aggression, Sex Typing, and Related Television Habits: Correction.

Reports an error in the original article by L. D. Eron et al ("Age Trends in the Development of Aggression, Sex Typing, and Related Television Habits," Developmental Psychology, 1983, Vol. 19, No. 1, pp. 71-77). There is an incorrect statement in the first full paragraph of the left column on page 76. The correct statement is listed. Two typographical errors are also noted. (The following abstract of this article originally appeared in record 1983-07714-001): Conducted a 3-yr longitudinal study with 2 large samples of elementary school youngsters overlapping in 1 grade (N = 672, 607, and 505 for each successive year). It was thus possible to trace developmental trends from Grades 1 to 5 on the following variables: aggression, frequency of TV viewing, extent of violence viewed on TV, judged realism of TV programs, and preference for masculine, feminine, or neutral activities. Data support the theory that there is a sensitive period during which the effect of TV can be especially influential on children's behavior. Further, since the correlation between violence viewing and aggression tends to increase until age 10-21 yrs, a cumulative effect beyond the sensitive period is suggested. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Intervening variables in the TV violence–aggression relation: Evidence from two countries.

758 children in the US and 220 children in Finland were interviewed and tested in each of 3 yrs in an overlapping longitudinal design covering Grades 1–5. Parents of 591 US Ss and 193 Finnish Ss were also interviewed. For girls in the US and boys in both countries, TV violence viewing was significantly related to concurrent aggression and significantly predicted future changes in aggression. The strength of the relation depended as much on the frequency with which violence was viewed as on the extent of the violence. For boys, the effect was exacerbated by the degree to which the boy identified with TV characters. Path analyses suggested a bidirectional causal effect in which violence viewing engendered aggression, and aggression engendered violence viewing. No evidence was found that those Ss predisposed to aggression or those with aggressive parents were affected more by TV violence. However, a number of other variables (e.g., strong identification with aggressive characters) were correlates of aggression and violence viewing. A multiprocess model in which violence viewing and aggression affect each other and, in turn, are stimulated by related variables is used to explain the findings. (74 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Effect of television violence on aggressiveness.

A review of field studies on the possible relation of exposure to TV violence to subsequent aggressive behaviors indicates that such studies have produced mixed results and that there is little evidence of causality. Correlational research has established a small but significant association between viewing TV violence and aggressiveness, but evidence for a causal relationship is again minimal. There is no substantial evidence for a cumulative effect of TV viewing, nor has it been demonstrated that the effect of TV viewing depends on a crucial period or is delayed. In addition, correlations between viewing violence on TV and aggression do not consistently increase with age. It is concluded that although exposure to and preference for violent programming on TV is correlated with aggressive behavior, there is no evidence that viewing violence in natural settings causes an increase in subsequent aggressiveness. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Television violence and children's aggression: Testing the priming, social script, and disinhibition predictions.

The effect of television violence on boys' aggression was investigated with consideration of teacher-rated characteristic aggressiveness, timing of frustration, and violence-related cues as moderators. Boys in Grades 2 and 3 (N?=?396) watched violent or nonviolent TV in groups of 6, and half the groups were later exposed to a cue associated with the violent TV program. They were frustrated either before or after TV viewing. Aggression was measured by naturalistic observation during a game of floor hockey. Groups containing more characteristically high-aggressive boys showed higher aggression following violent TV plus the cue than following violent TV alone, which in turn produced more aggression than did the nonviolent TV condition. There was evidence that both the violent content and the cue may have suppressed aggression among groups composed primarily of boys low in characteristic aggressiveness. Results were interpreted in terms of current information-processing theories of media effects on aggression. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Television violence and aggression: The debate continues.

Defends the majority consensus in the literature that there is a causal relation between viewing TV violence and aggression. Replies are made to challenges of this consensus by J. L. Freedman (see record 1984-30860-001). It is concluded that the data support a bidirectional causal relation between viewing TV violence and aggression, that the potential threats to the internal and external validity of studies using different methods are not likely to produce a positive bias, and that the findings can be generalized to real-world violence. The available research is placed in a theoretical context encompassing multiple psychological processes and developmental change, and social policy implications are discussed. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Weaknesses in the television-causes-aggression analysis by Eron et al.

Evaluates the L. D. Eron et al (see record 1973-09034-001) study that suggests a relationship between TV violence and later aggression in boys. The data on the girls do not support the conclusion, the validity of the parental aggression data is faulty, and the data on 3rd-grade viewing of violence are of low validity. Also, programs were categorized for violence on the basis of manifest rather than latent content. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On Eron on Television Violence and Aggression.

Eron's (February 1982) discussion in this journal of the results from his second longitudinal study, the Chicago Circle Study (CCS), of the relationship, in young people, between TV violence viewing (TVVV) and the trait of aggression contains one mystifying omission: No longitudinal findings are reported! There are nonlagged (i.e., Contemporaneous) correlations between TVVV and aggression in abundance (see Eron's Table 1), but not a single lagged (i.e., longitudinal) one. These nonlagged correlations, by themselves, tell us nothing about the question that Eron's longitudinal study was presumably to answer: What is the long-term effect of watching violent TV on the development of the trait of aggression? (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Parent–child interaction, television violence, and aggression of children.

Summarized and integrated results of 2 large-scale longitudinal studies (L. D. Eron, see PA, Vol 38:2452; Eron et al, in press). The relationship between TV violence and aggression in Ss was corroborated in 2 different geographical areas of the US and was found to hold for both boys and girls. The causal effect is circular, with TV violence affecting S's aggression and aggressive Ss watching more violent TV. Contributing increments to a S's level of overt aggression were popularity, intellectual ability, aggressive fantasy, extent of physical punishment, rejection by parents, and the tendency of parents to endorse attitudes and behaviors often seen in sociopathic individuals. It is shown that it is possible to intervene to attenuate the relationship between TV violence and aggression with simple tuitional procedures that supercede the influence of the parent variables studied. Important intervening variables in the TV violence–aggression relationship are S's identification with aggressive characters and the extent to which S believes TV portrays reality. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

TV violence and aggression revisited again.

Criticizes L. D. Eron and L. R. Huesmann's (1981) reply to D. Sohn's (1981) response to their article on TV violence and aggression. Eron and Huesmann fail to acknowledge that there are a large number of studies failing to demonstrate a causal relationship between violence viewing and aggressive behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Longitudinal relations between children's exposure to TV violence and their aggressive and violent behavior in young adulthood: 1977-1992.

Although the relation between TV-violence viewing and aggression in childhood has been clearly demonstrated, only a few studies have examined this relation from childhood to adulthood, and these studies of children growing up in the 1960s reported significant relations only for boys. The current study examines the longitudinal relations between TV-violence viewing at ages 6 to 10 and adult aggressive behavior about 15 years later for a sample growing up in the 1970s and 1980s. Follow-up archival data (N=450) and interview data (N=329) reveal that childhood exposure to media violence predicts young adult aggressive behavior for both males and females. Identification with aggressive TV characters and perceived realism of TV violence also predict later aggression. These relations persist even when the effects of socioeconomic status, intellectual ability, and a variety of parenting factors are controlled. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does aggression cause a preference for viewing media violence?

Two experiments tested the hypotheses that physical aggression and fantasy aggression would lead to a preference for viewing violence. In Exp I, 45 female and 42 male undergraduates were induced to express aggressive, nonaggressive, or no fantasies and were then given an opportunity to select film clips for viewing. The films chosen by men contained more violence than those chosen by women. In addition, aggressive fantasies in males, compared to nonaggressive fantasies, increased the preference for viewing violence. Exp II, with 64 males, replicated the results of Exp I and also found that men who were given an opportunity to aggress physically, compared to those who had no such opportunity, were more likely to choose to view films containing violent content. Results suggest that just as the viewing of violence may increase aggression, so, too, aggressive behavior may increase the preference for viewing violence. (45 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Television and aggression: A counterargument.

Cites limitations to the L. D. Eron et al (see record 1973-09034-001) study that suggests that TV violence causes aggression. The Eron et al study dealt with Ss' favorite TV programs and the amount of aggression in them rather than with their actual total amount of exposure to TV violence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Mitigating the imitation of aggressive behaviors by changing children's attitudes about media violence.

In 2 experiments, 169 1st- and 3rd-graders selected because of their high exposure to TV violence, were randomly divided into an experimental and a control group. Over 2 yrs, the experimental Ss were exposed to 2 treatments designed to reduce the likelihood of their imitating the aggressive behaviors they observed on TV. The treatments involved teaching the Ss that (a) TV violence is an unrealistic portrayal of the real world, (b) aggressive behaviors are not as acceptable in the real world as they appear on TV, and (c) one should not behave like the aggressive characters seen on TV. The control group received comparable neutral treatments. By the end of the 2nd yr, the experimental Ss were rated as significantly less aggressive by their peers, and the relation between violence viewing and aggressiveness was diminished in the experimental group. (35 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Television violence and aggression: The causal effect remains.

Replies to criticisms by G. Becker (1972), R. M. Kaplan (1972), and H. Kay (1972) on the article by L. D. Eron et al (see record 1973-09034-001) concerning television violence and aggression. There is no reason to change the conclusion that early exposure to TV violence probably has a causal influence on aggression in males. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Does television violence cause aggression?

In a previous study 3rd graders who preferred violent TV programs were rated more aggressive in school by peers. In a 10-yr follow-up, 211 males and 216 females of the original 875 Ss were interviewed as to their television habits and again rated their peers on aggressive behavior. It was found that the violence of programs preferred by male 3rd graders was even more strongly related to aggression 10 yr. later. Cross-lagged correlations, partial correlations, and multiple regression indicate a probable causative influence of watching violent TV programs in early formative years on later aggression. Although TV violence was not the only cause of aggressive behavior, its effect was relatively independent and explained a larger proportion of variance than any other single factor studied, e.g., IQ, social status, ethnicity, and parental disharmony. (24 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Impact of the introduction of television on crime in the United States: Empirical findings and theoretical implications.

Examined the causal impact of the introduction of TV on FBI indicators of violent crime, burglary, auto theft, and larceny, using an interrupted time-series design with switching replications. No consistent effect of TV's introduction was observed for violent crimes, burglary, or auto theft. However, the introduction of TV was consistently associated with increases in larceny, irrespective of whether it was introduced in 1951 or 1955, or whether state- or city-level data were examined. Analyses of the early content of TV indicate that the advertising of consumption goods was high, that upper- and middle-class lifestyles were overwhelmingly portrayed, and that larceny was portrayed much less often than crimes of violence. The effect of TV on larceny is therefore attributed to factors associated with viewing high levels of consumption, such as relative deprivation and frustration, rather than to factors associated with the social learning of larceny through viewing it on TV. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Desensitization to media violence: Links with habitual media violence exposure, aggressive cognitions, and aggressive behavior.

This study examined the links between desensitization to violent media stimuli and habitual media violence exposure as a predictor and aggressive cognitions and behavior as outcome variables. Two weeks after completing measures of habitual media violence exposure, trait aggression, trait arousability, and normative beliefs about aggression, undergraduates (N = 303) saw a violent film clip and a sad or a funny comparison clip. Skin conductance level (SCL) was measured continuously, and ratings of anxious and pleasant arousal were obtained after each clip. Following the clips, participants completed a lexical decision task to measure accessibility of aggressive cognitions and a competitive reaction time task to measure aggressive behavior. Habitual media violence exposure correlated negatively with SCL during violent clips and positively with pleasant arousal, response times for aggressive words, and trait aggression, but it was unrelated to anxious arousal and aggressive responding during the reaction time task. In path analyses controlling for trait aggression, normative beliefs, and trait arousability, habitual media violence exposure predicted faster accessibility of aggressive cognitions, partly mediated by higher pleasant arousal. Unprovoked aggression during the reaction time task was predicted by lower anxious arousal. Neither habitual media violence usage nor anxious or pleasant arousal predicted provoked aggression during the laboratory task, and SCL was unrelated to aggressive cognitions and behavior. No relations were found between habitual media violence viewing and arousal in response to the sad and funny film clips, and arousal in response to the sad and funny clips did not predict aggressive cognitions or aggressive behavior on the laboratory task. This suggests that the observed desensitization effects are specific to violent content. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Television and behavior: Research conclusions of the 1982 NIMH report and their policy implications.

Research on TV and behavior in the 1970's has recently been reviewed and evaluated in a 2-volume report from the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). The most widely publicized conclusion of the report was that violence on TV does lead to aggressive behavior by children. The TV networks' response to this conclusion has been one of denial. Research also documented that young children are often unable to relate a series of complex actions to their final consequence. Another area in the cognitive and affective aspects of TV concerns the effects of TV viewing on child development and on academic achievement. Findings suggest a need for increased emphasis on teaching children critical TV viewing skills. TV also has the potential to affect social beliefs and behaviors, such as beliefs about sex roles, minorities, prosocial behavior, and products advertised on TV. The impact of TV on social relations, especially familial relations, and on health is also addressed. The NIMH report demonstrates a need to see TV viewing as a continuing form of informal education. What is needed is more creativity on the part of the industry and more discrimination on the part of the viewer. The teaching of critical viewing skills and parental interest in what children watch are especially important. (2 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On television as a cause of aggression.

Criticizes the use of the peer rating instrument in the L. D. Eron et al (see record 1973-09034-001) study that implied a causal relationship between watching TV violence at age 8 yrs and behaving aggressively at age 18 yrs. Contrary to the Eron et al conclusion, the link between TV violence and aggression has not been clearly established. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is violence itself necessarily bad?

Comments on J. P. Murray's (see record 1974-06895-001) article concerning TV and violence, focusing on the evidence cited and the definitions of aggression and violence used. Murray fails to recognize that watching violent programs might have certain beneficial consequences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)