Semantic activation and episodic memory: Age similarities and differences.

In 2 experiments, 48 19–35 yr olds and 48 59–75 yr olds were engaged in semantic and nonsemantic orienting tasks and were subsequently given incidental or expected recall and recognition tasks. Reaction time (RT) patterns from the orienting tasks suggested that all Ss experienced similar semantic activation during encoding. Under incidental conditions, age differences in memory performance were minimal. When memory tests were expected, younger Ss recalled and recognized more items than did older Ss, suggesting that younger Ss were more effective in their deployment of mnemonic strategies. The age difference was particularly pronounced for unattended items, which suggests an age difference in the capacity to encode all of the episodic information. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of adult age on primary and secondary memory search.

Conducted 2 experiments with 25 19–29 yr olds, 26 62–85 yr olds, 30 18–32 yr olds, and 30 61–81 yr olds to compare young and elderly adults on the ability to search lists of words stored in primary memory (PM) and in secondary memory (SM). Exp I indicated that age differences in search performance were greatest under SM conditions. Older Ss, unlike the younger ones, appeared biased toward responding that probe items were not members of the memory sets stored in SM. As a result of this apparent bias, older Ss committed a large number of errors on trials in which the probe was a member of the memorized list (i.e., positive probe trials) yet few errors on the trials in which the probe was not a member of the list ( i.e., negative probe trials). The responses of older Ss to negative probe trials were more rapid than were those to positive probe trials. In Exp II, this pattern of responding was examined. It is concluded that age differences were involved in the ability to encode memory sets and transfer them from PM to SM as well as in the ability to retrieve information from SM prior to conducting a memory search. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in verbal and play fantasy.

Investigated 2 types of fantasy productions by 45 male and female 3-6 yr olds and by 47 male and female 11-12 yr olds. At the age of entering school, it was found that boys and girls did not differ in the deprivation-enhancement pattern of their verbal fantasies. However, sex-related differences were clearly evident among preadolescents. Fantasy involving dramatic play productions, however, revealed such differences among Ss of both age groups both in the play material selected and in the spatial configurations and thematic content of the productions. Findings are discussed in terms of boys' and girls' sexual identity, as this derives from feelings about their own bodies. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory for spatial information in young and old adults.

Evaluated the claim that memory for spatial information is automatic. 46 18–35 yr olds and 49 51–80 yr olds studied a map containing 12 structures. Half the Ss in each age group were asked to remember both the structures and their locations (intentional learning), and the remaining half were led to believe they would be tested only on the structures (incidental learning). Both age and test expectations affected memory for the locations of structures, with older Ss and Ss in the incidental groups performing more poorly. It is concluded that memory for spatial location is not automatic. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reconstructing a large-scale spatial arrangement: Effects of environmental organization and operativity.

The effect of the organization of items in a room-sized space on memory for an environmental layout was examined in relation to operative level in classification. 130 5–9 yr olds were pretested and categorized as high, transitional, or low in operativity. Subsequently, Ss were asked to reconstruct 1 of 4 arrangements of 16 items of furniture. The 4 conditions varied in degree of logical organization, clustering of items by similar physical attributes, and meaningfulness of spatial orientation of items. Clustered and meaningful arrangements were expected to facilitate memory, and operativity was expected to further enhance the effects of each. Reconstructions were scored for the accuracy of the specific placement of items, the general placement of items, and spatial relations between items. Clustering increased memory for spatial relations and for the specific and general area placement of items. Meaningful orientation of items in the layout interacted with clustering to improve memory for the general area of the room in which items belonged. Operative knowledge of classification increased memory for general location but did not show the expected interactions with environmental organization. The impact of environmental organization, knowledge of classification, and other age-related changes for memory of large-scale arrangement are discussed. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Adult age differences in memory-driven selective attention.

Investigated the ability of young and elderly adults to use memory-driven selective attention in 2 visual-search experiments. In Exp I, 16 18–22 yr olds and 16 60–74 yr olds were Ss in a yes–no search paradigm. Stimulus-onset-asynchrony (SOA) was varied from 200 to 1,000 msec. In Exp II, 18 18–24 yr olds and 18 60–73 yr olds were presented 1 of 2 target letters as a cue, using the same SOA ranges. Results in both experiments show that both age groups exhibited faster RTs to a visual display on trials when advance information (a cue) correctly predicted the particular target letter that would most likely be present in the display. Variations in the SOA between the cue and the display demonstrated that both age groups were capable of developing this selective preparation for a particular target letter within 200 msec. Results indicate that age differences in performance were determined primarily by quantitative changes in the speed of information processing rather than by qualitative changes in attention. In both experiments, the 2 age groups differed in the type of relationship between speed and accuracy that they adopted, suggesting a possible age difference in performance strategy. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Notational adaptation in children.

Three experiments examined whether and how children adapt their notations (use of external symbol systems) to the communicative needs of addresses of different ages. In Exp 1, 26 8–9 yr olds, 28 10–11 yr olds, and 11 adults made 2 notations about a solution to a simple board puzzle, one for a peer and the other for a 6-yr-old. Exp 2, with 28 8–9 yr olds, 23 10–11 yr olds, and 30 adults, focused on oral adaptations in the same context. In Exp 3, 28 8–9 yr-olds, 21 10–11 yr olds, and 30 adults were asked to choose ready-made notations for different addresses. Children's notations at both age groups were overall informative and adequate and improved with age. Children's notation's however, were not as sophisticated as verbal instructions, possible due to the Ss' more extensive experience with oral communication. Children's notational adaptation also developed with age. Some 8–9 yr olds and many 10–11 yr olds made systematic changes in their notations and verbal instructions for addresses of different ages. Most Ss of both age groups were aware of the difference in communicative competence between the younger addressee and the peer. They also shared with adults certain assumptions regarding the needs of the younger addresses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Memory for activities: Adult age differences and intentionality.

24 17–24 yr olds and 24 56–76 yr olds were tested for memory of activities on a series of tasks (e.g., letter cancellation and anagrams) that varied along the rote–cognitive dimension. Half the Ss in each age group were forewarned of the subsequent memory test (intentional learning); the remaining Ss were not forewarned (incidental learning). An overall age difference, favoring young Ss, was found. However, the magnitude of the age difference varied across activities, being slight for cognitively demanding tasks and pronounced for less-demanding activities. Memory was unaffected by the forewarning variable for both age groups. Results are interpreted in terms of an age deficit in the retrieval of memory traces established by activities, with cognitively demanding activities yielding more distinctive and therefore more retrievable traces than less-demanding activities for older adults. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Leg extensor power and quadriceps strength: an assessment of repeatability in patients with osteoarthritic knees

Cohort differences in cognitive functioning were studied in two 70-year-old samples born 16 years apart, 1906/07 and 1922, and living in G?teborg, Sweden. Psychometric tests measuring verbal ability, inductive reasoning, spatial ability, perceptual speed, secondary memory, and primary memory were used. All tests showed significantly better results in the latter 70-year-old cohort. Longer education and better living conditions in this cohort help to explain the results. Differences in somatic health could not explain the cognitive differences in this population. If biological age is defined as inversely related to the remainder of an individual's life span, the increasing life expectancy also means that the 70-year olds in 1992 are biologically younger than their 1976/77 counterparts.     

Effects of cognitive interviewing and practice on children's recall performance.

In Exp 1, a staged event was carried out that involved a private encounter between an unfamiliar man and 2 children. The results show that questioning techniques based on principles from cognitive psychology significantly increased the number of correct facts recalled by both 7–8 yr olds and 10–11 yr olds over that gained with standard interview procedures and without affecting the number of incorrect items generated. These results were replicated in Exp 2 with a different staged event and with 8–9 yr olds and 11–12 yr olds. Exp 2 also assessed the impact of a prior practice cognitive interview, and practice was found to be effective for both age groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

P300 latency and memory span development.

The rapid increase of memory span with development has been attributed to increases in the efficiency with which children can process the items to be remembered. To test this hypothesis, WAIS Digit Span and latency from the P300 component of the event-related brain potential—a measure of stimulus evaluation time independent of response production—were obtained from 24 5–14 yr olds and 24 20–40 yr olds. Increases in digit span were associated with decreases in peak latency for children but not for adults. This finding was obtained even when S age was statistically removed, and it suggests that immediate memory development is tightly coupled with decreases in speed of stimulus identification. Implications for theories of memory development are discussed. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Neuropsychological changes in adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes.

Assessed the neurobehavioral status of 40 12–19 yr olds with a long history (at least 3 yrs) of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus and of 40 demographically similar nondiabetic adolescents. A detailed social and medical history was obtained from parents, and the degree of recent metabolic control was determined by examining the glycosolated hemoglobin values of diabetic Ss. Ss under age 16 yrs were given 7 subtests of the WISC—R; Ss aged 16 yrs and older were given the same subtests from the WAIS. Ss also completed tests that assessed associative learning and memory; visuospatial ability; speed, dexterity, and visuomotor integration; CFF; and self-concept. Results show that diabetics performed within normal limits on all tests, although significant between-groups differences did appear on measures of verbal intelligence, visuomotor coordination, and CFF. Although it could be argued that these results are indicative of structural brain damage, the possibility is discussed that the differences observed may be a function of transient metabolic abnormalities at the time of testing or, alternately, may be a reflection of the behavioral changes associated with having a life-threatening illness. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

"Neuropsychological assessment of memory in the elderly": Erratum.

Reports an error in "Neuropsychological assessment of memory in the elderly" by Donald E. Read (Canadian Journal of Psychology Revue Canadienne de Psychologie, 1987[Jun], Vol 41[2], 158-174). On p. 171: The last sentence of the first paragraph should read "This finding has now been replicated in a follow-up study with the same subjects (Read, 1986)." (The following abstract of the original article appeared in record 1988-30166-001.) Administered 3 tests designed for the neuropsychological assessment of older people. The tests focus on evaluating the storage abilities of the brain for both explicit and implicit aspects of memory. Ss were volunteers in 3 age groups: 89 males and 153 females (aged 50–59 yrs); 122 males and 181 females (aged 60–69 yrs); and 77 males and 112 females (aged 70–79 yrs). The tests were (1) the Supermarket Test, designed to measure both immediate and delayed episodic memory for test items, plus episodic recall of the spatial location of the same items; (2) the Visual Closure Test, designed to measure implicit and explicit memory; and (3) the Sequential Geometric Design Test, designed to measure visuoperceptual ability and nonverbal memory. Findings show the tests to work well with patients suffering from mild to severe memory loss and with those in the early stages of dementia. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Information processing and the development of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic social values.

109 3–10 yr old Ss completed an individualized regression assessment of social values, a central-incidental memory measure, and a free-recall word list task in a study that assessed the possibility that the developmental difference in social values is associated with the development of information-processing capabilities. Findings demonstrate developmental differences in social values and suggest a possible partial explanation for the differences. The modal social value among 3–5 yr olds was individualism, while among 6–7 yr olds and 8–20 yr olds the modal social value was superiority. The oldest Ss expressed a social value involving equality more frequently than did younger Ss. It is suggested that older children, compared to younger children, more often consider the relative nature of their outcomes and more often engage in social comparison. Performance on the memory tasks was consistently associated with age: Ss who expressed an individualism social value generally performed more poorly on the memory measures than did Ss who expressed any other social value. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influence of the goal on children's exploration and memory of large-scale space.

Investigated developmental differences in spatial exploration and memory depending on the purpose for which 32 6–7 and 8–9 yr olds explored the space. Ss were instructed prior to exploring a funhouse to attend to either the layout of the space or the route through the space. Ss given instructions to study the layout studied and remembered more layout-relevant information, such as the number and location of dead-end rooms and the relations between spatial features, than did those in the route condition; this same pattern was found for the 6–7 and the 8–9 yr olds. Results suggest that layout knowledge includes knowledge of routes, that layout rather than route knowledge emphasizes the interrelationship of spatial information, and that the acquisition of route or layout knowledge depends on the purpose of obtaining the information. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Moral judgments, behaviour and cognitive style in young children.

Assessed level of moral maturity in 2 studies with middle-class 6-7 yr olds (n = 29), middle-class 3-4 yr olds (n = 35), and lower-class 3-4 yr olds (n = 37). For the older Ss, stories were used to elicit judgments about relative goodness or badness. Level of moral maturity was scored on the basis of S's awareness of the intentions of the actor as opposed to his reliance on consequences. For the younger Ss, a group of films depicting similar situations were shown. All Ss were then given a battery of tests (e.g., the Children's Embedded Figures Test) measuring cognitive style and rated by their teachers on behavior and personality items. In 6 yr olds, level of moral maturity was found to relate to the cognitive styles of reflection-impulsivity and field dependence-independence, but not to verbal intelligence. Ss characterized as immature in their moral judgments were more impulsive and field-dependent. Ss with higher-level moral judgments were also rated by their teachers as more attentive and reflective. In preschool samples, Ss highest on moral maturity were rated as less aggressive by their teachers, least impulsive in cognitive style and in the lower-class sample, more field-independent. (French summary) (20 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Reader and text variables as determinants of discourse memory in adulthood.

Compared the performance of 24 61–75 yr old students with that of 24 18–28 yr old students and also with the performance of 24 63–75 yr old nonstudents who read and recalled short texts that were in either narrative or expository form. In addition, a set of 6 verbal ability measures thought to be related to discourse memory was obtained for all of the Ss. Older Ss recalled less from the texts than younger Ss, and neither type of text nor student status modified the magnitude of the age differences. The set of verbal ability measures was adequately described by 2 principal components, one consisting of simple, speed-related skills, and the other consisting of more complex skills. Each set of variables predicted a proportion of discourse memory variance and accounted for some of the variance that would otherwise be attributed to age. Results suggest that age differences in some basic cognitive skills related to reading effectiveness might underlie age differences in memory for discourse. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The ontogeny of right cerebral lateralization of spatial mental set.

Tested the manner in which right-hemisphere function lateralizes in childhood based on the left-hemisphere bias in visual orientation that results from inducing spatial mental set. 49 male and 49 female 5–12 yr olds identified tachistoscopically presented digits in either half field, given either verbal or spatial priming. The spatial priming even diminished the right-field advantage in the verbal condition when it was conducted in the 2nd session several days later. No evidence of progressive lateralization for the left hemisphere (verbal identification) or for the right hemisphere (spatial priming) process was found. Minor sex differences could be due to strategic factors. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Age and the selectivity of visual information processing.

Two experiments assessed age differences in the selectivity of visual information processing. Selectivity was measured by the amount of interference caused by nontarget letters when Ss detected a target letter in a visual display. In both experiments, young and elderly groups participated in search and nonsearch conditions; in the search condition, targets appeared anywhere in the display, whereas in the nonsearch condition targets were confined to the center position of the display. In Exp I, 20 19–27 yr olds and 20 65–90 yr olds were assigned to either condition for 2 sessions of testing. In Exp II, 16 young (mean age 19.8 yrs) and 16 elderly (mean age 71.8 yrs) Ss participated in both conditions. In both experiments, nontargets produced larger interference effects for old compared to young Ss in the search condition but not in the nonsearch condition. The obtained pattern of age effects could not be explained by age-related reductions in parafoveal acuity. Findings indicate that the magnitude of divided-attention deficit increases with age, whereas focused-attention deficits are unaffected by aging. (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's concepts of volume and flotation.

Conducted a pilot study in which children (aged 7–9 yrs and 11–13 yrs) were asked to judge which 1 out of 3 wooden blocks would float (or sink), given weight and volume information for each block relative to a block that was known to float (or sink). Analysis of explanations indicated that judgments may have been based on the size–weight illusion. An experiment exploring the basis of flotation judgments was conducted with 14 children aged 7 yrs 1 mo to 9 yrs 6 mo and 16 children aged 11 yrs 4 mo to 14 yrs 11 mo that involved a test for judgment of volume based on information integration theory. Results show that Ss aged 7–24 yrs accurately judged volume by integrating 3 dimensions—width, depth, and height—according to the multiplicative rule. A rule assessment of their flotation judgments showed no age differences in initial rule, with weight rules being most popular. However, after feedback there were marked age effects; the 7–9 yr olds abandoned their initial rule without finding an alternative, and the 11–24 yr olds were generally able to find the correct flotation rule. It is concluded that children aged 7–24 yrs can judge volume but 7–9 yr olds have difficulty with the concept of flotation, possibly because it requires mental comparison of 2 ratios, a task known to be difficult for 7–9 yr olds. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)