Gender and young children's expectations for performance in arithmetic.

Tracked the progress of approximately 1,100 children from the beginning of 1st grade to the end of 3rd grade. Ss included Whites at a suburban school and Blacks and Whites whose background was urban and lower class. Ss', their mothers', and their peers' expectations for their grades in reading, arithmetic, and conduct were assessed each semester. Ss' actual grades and achievement test scores were also obtained. Data suggest that the schooling experience in 1st, 2nd, and 3rd grades differed according to gender, even though the 2 sexes sat together in the same classrooms. Although boys' arithmetic marks and/or general aptitude did not exceed girls', data indicate that boys developed higher expectations for their own performance in arithmetic than did girls, apparently in response to differential expectations held by their parents. (14 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Gender and ethnicity in children's cardiovascular reactivity: 7 years of study.

A total of 295 children (127 White boys, 15 Black boys, 133 White girls, and 20 Black girls) participated in reactivity examinations in 1987 (all were in 3rd grade; age, M?=?9.1 years), 1988, 1989, 1991, 1992, and 1993 (all were in 9th grade; age, M?=?15.1 years). An analysis of residualized reactivity change values indicated consistent and significant ethnicity effects (Blacks greater than Whites) for systolic and diastolic blood pressure and for heart rate. Gender effects were also apparent for both systolic and diastolic blood pressure (boys greater than girls). These data suggest that the transition from childhood to adolescence is associated with a significant pattern of ethnic differences in reactivity, although the association of this pattern with the development of cardiovascular risk and disease remains to be ascertained. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's Achievement in Early Elementary School: Longitudinal Effects of Parental Involvement, Expectations, and Quality of Assistance.

In this prospective, longitudinal study, the authors examined the relations among parental behaviors, parental expectations, and children's academic achievement. Participants were 187 low-income children and their mothers, studied from birth of the child through 3rd grade. Mothers' quality of instruction prior to school entry had significant direct effects on IQ and indirect effects on achievement in 1st and 3rd grades. Parental expectations in 3rd grade had significant direct effects on parental involvement in 3rd grade. Children's achievement in 1st grade had significant direct effects on parental involvement and expectations in 3rd grade. Parental involvement in 3rd grade had a significant direct effect on achievement in 3rd grade. Results suggest that early parenting factors are important for children's academic achievement. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in drinking problems among whites, blacks, and Hispanics: 1984-1992

This paper reports changes in drinking problems among Whites, Blacks, and Hispanics between 1984 and 1992. A probability sample including 1,777 Whites. 1,947 Blacks, and 1,453 Hispanics in the United States adult household population was interviewed in 1984. In 1992 a subsample consisting of 788 Whites, 723 Blacks, and 703 Hispanics was reinterviewed. Results show a decrease in problem prevalence among Whites, stability among Blacks, and an increase among Hispanics. Problem incidence was higher among Hispanics than among Whites and Blacks, put problem remission was higher among Whites. Women had a lower problem incidence but a higher problem remission than men, independent of ethnicity. The two best predictors of problem status in 1992 were reporting a problem in 1984 and reporting a high level of consumption in 1984.     

School desegregation: An evaluation of predictions made in Brown v. Board of Education..

Hypotheses concerning the effects of desegregation on prejudice, self-esteem, and achievement were derived from testimony given by social scientists in Brown v. Board of Education. The author explains evidence concerning these hypotheses from published studies of the effects of school desegregation on prejudice and on Black students' achievement, and studies using questionnaire measures of self-esteem to compare segregated Blacks and Whites. It is tentatively concluded that (a) desegregation generally does not reduce the prejudices of Whites toward Blacks, (b) the self-esteem of Blacks rarely increases in desegregated schools, (c) the achievement level of Blacks sometimes increases and rarely decreases in desegregated schools, and (d) desegregation leads to increases in Black prejudice toward Whites about as frequently as it leads to decreases. These conclusions should be regarded as tentative because (a) most of the studies have investigated only the short-term effects of desegregation, (b) the extent and type of desegregation varied greatly, (c) the studies were done in different regions with children who differed in age, (d) the studies often employed noncomparable measures of each variable, and (e) social class and IQ were typically not included as control variables. (132 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Perceptual integration on the Rorschach as an indicator of cognitive capacity: A developmental study of racial differences in a clinic population.

Rorschach protocols of 173 7-14 yr old Blacks and Whites who had been evaluated at a child guidance clinic were rescored with respect to developmental level of perceptual integration. Blacks had higher perceptual-integration scores in comparison to Whites. This finding, however, was accounted for by the higher performance of low-IQ (70-89) Blacks as compared to low-IQ Whites. No differences were obtained between average-IQ (90-109) Blacks or Whites. It is suggested that standard IQ tests may not adequately tap the cognitive capacity of some Black children and that use of the Rorschach from a developmental/structural perspective may provide a useful adjunctive measure of intelligence that would more realistically assess children's cognitive competence. (21 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Realism and socioeconomic status (SES) of occupational plans of low SES Black and White male adolescents.

Studied 118 low SES Black and White male high school students to clarify certain definitional problems related to the assessment of the occupational plans of low SES youth (using the Vocational Choice Inventory). Vocational choice realism was defined by the extent to which intelligence (Science Research Associates Pictorial Reasoning Test) corresponded to the intelligence level recommended in the Dictionary of Occupational Titles (1965). It was demonstrated that when given the opportunity, the students were able to distinguish between their aspirations and expectations. Further, low SES Blacks were not significantly more unrealistic than Whites in their occupational expectations, and both Blacks and Whites aspired to, preferred, and expected to enter occupations at similar SES levels. Especially with respect to low SES Ss, the importance of distinguishing among different levels of vocational plans on a fantasy-reality continuum is stressed. (23 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Story recall in young Black and White children: Effects of racial group membership, race of experimenter, and dialect.

Tested the effects of racial group membership, race of E, and dialect on unstructured and probed recall. l6 Black and 16 White 4-6 mo old children were Ss. Subgroups of 4 Ss within each racial group were randomly assigned to the experimental conditions such that order of exposure to E (Black and White) and dialects Standard English vs Black English vernacular) were counterbalanced. Results show that Whites performed better than Blacks in Standard English, Blacks performed better than Whites in Black English vernacular, Blacks tested in Black English vernacular were equivalent to Whites tested in Standard English, and Whites performed better in Standard English than in Black English vernacular. When probed with questions, there was an overall increase in the proportion of correct information for both racial groups. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Racial identity, social context, and race-related social cognition in African Americans during middle childhood.

This study examined the effect of changes in racial identity, cross-race friendships, same-race friendships, and classroom racial composition on changes in race-related social cognition from 3rd to 5th grade for 73 African American children. The goal of the study was to determine the extent to which preadolescent racial identity and social context predict expectations of racial discrimination in cross-race social interactions (social expectations). Expectations of racial discrimination were assessed using vignettes of cross-race social situations involving an African American child in a social interaction with European Americans. There were 3 major findings. First, expectations for discrimination declined slightly from 3rd to 5th grade. Second, although racial composition of children's classrooms, number of European American friends, gender, and family poverty status were largely unrelated to social expectations, having more African American friends was associated with expecting more discrimination in cross-racial interactions from 3rd to 5th grade. Third, increases in racial centrality were related to increases in discrimination expectations, and increases in public regard were associated with decreases in discrimination expectations. These data suggest that as early as 3rd grade, children are forming attitudes about their racial group that have implications for their cross-race social interactions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Race and self-esteem: Meta-analyses comparing Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, and American Indians and comment on Gray-Little and Hafdahl (2000).

These meta-analyses examine race differences in self-esteem among 712 datapoints. Blacks scored higher than Whites on self-esteem measures (d=0.19), but Whites scored higher than other racial minority groups, including Hispanics (d=-0.09), Asians (d=-0.30), and American Indians (d=-0.21). Most of these differences were smallest in childhood and grew larger with age. Blacks' self-esteem increased over time relative to Whites', with the Black advantage not appearing until the 1980s. Black and Hispanic samples scored higher on measures without an academic self-esteem subscale. Relative to Whites, minority males had lower self-esteem than did minority females, and Black and Hispanic self-esteem was higher in groups with high socioeconomic status. The results are most consistent with a cultural interpretation of racial differences in self-esteem. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Influences of student background and teacher authoritarianism on teacher expectations.

Asked 25 White elementary school teachers to predict the academic grades and occupational attainment of 6 students: a middle-class White boy; a middle-class White girl; a lower-class White boy; a lower-class White girl; a middle-class Asian boy; and a middle-class Asian girl. In addition, teachers were classified as high or low in authoritarianism based on their tolerance of ambiguity and cognitive complexity. It was found that higher grade and occupational expectations were held for middle-class than for lower-class students. Grade expectations were higher for girls than boys and tended to be higher for Asians than Whites. White females were expected to attain higher occupational status than Asian females, but Asian males were expected to surpass White males on this measure. Finally, teachers who were high authoritarians were more likely than low-authoritarian teachers to utilize stereotypes that favored ingroups and tended to be less likely to use stereotypes that favored outgroups. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Girlfriend, boyfriend: Age and sex differences in intimate friendship.

Investigated changes in intimate friendship with same- and opposite-sex friends in preadolescence and adolescence, using the Intimacy Scale. Ss were Israeli children from the 5th, 7th, 9th, and 11th grades (60 boys and 60 girls from each grade), who rated their friendship with a same- or opposite-sex best friend. There was a significant age difference in overall intimacy with same-sex friends. Frankness and spontaneity, knowing and sensitivity, attachment, exclusiveness, and giving and sharing were factors that changed with age. Trust and loyalty, and taking and imposing did not. Opposite-sex friendship revealed a significant increase in intimacy with age. Boys and girls did not differ in reported opposite-sex friendship in the 5th and 7th grades, whereas girls in the 9th and 11th grades reported higher intimacy than did boys. This sex-by-age pattern of interaction was particularly evident for attachment and for trust and loyalty. Girls were higher in knowing and sensitivity, giving and sharing, and taking and imposing. The implications for further differentiation among types of peer relations and interrelation of dyadic friendship and cognitive growth are discussed. (42 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Sex differences in math performance: The role of children's approach to schoolwork.

This research examined whether the tendency for girls to outperform boys in the classroom is due to differences in how girls and boys approach schoolwork. In 5th grade and then again in 7th grade, children (N=518) reported on how they approach schoolwork (i.e., achievement goals and classroom behavior), their learning strategies, and their self-efficacy in math; math grades and achievement test scores were also collected. Girls were more likely than boys to hold mastery over performance goals and to refrain from disruptive classroom behavior, which predicted girls' greater effortful learning over time. The sex difference in learning strategies accounted for girls' edge over boys in terms of grades. Girls did not do better on achievement tests, possibly because self-efficacy, for which there was also no sex difference, was the central predictor of performance on achievement tests. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

An attributional analysis of the development of excuse giving in aggressive and nonaggressive African American boys.

This study examined the effects of age and aggressive status on children's understanding and use of excuses. Younger (3rd–5th grade) and older (6th–8th grade) aggressive and nonaggressive African American boys were first instructed to imagine that they failed to fulfill a social obligation. The cause of the transgression was presented as controllable (e.g., choosing to do something else), and children indicated whether they would reveal that cause or make up an excuse. Next, 4 causes of the same transgression were manipulated to be either controllable or uncontrollable. Children inferred that they would be held more responsible for controllable causes of social misconduct, that these causes would elicit more anger, and that they would be more likely to withhold these causes (i.e., make up an excuse). The linkages between perceived responsibility, anticipated anger, and excuse giving were stronger among older than younger boys and among nonaggressive than aggressive boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Race, IQ, and the middle class.

Studied whether socioeconomic status indicators sufficiently represent those aspects of the home environment relevant to IQ. Intellectual home environment ratings of the families of 50 Black and 50 White middle-class 9th-grade girls were compared to the girls' Otis-Lennon Mental Ability Test scores, Metropolitan Achievement Test scores, and GPAs. Despite similar standings on Warner's Index of Status Characteristics, there was a difference in the intellectual home environments of Blacks and Whites. There was also a relationship between the intellectual home environment and the S's IQ. Furthermore, the family's environment predicted academic achievement as well as did IQ. To determine the relationship of the environment to intellectual performance, researchers must measure the underlying process variables known to be related to IQ. (49 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Student differences in self-regulated learning: Relating grade, sex, and giftedness to self-efficacy and strategy use.

Forty-five boys and 45 girls of the 5th, 8th, and 11th grades from a school for the academically gifted and an identical number from regular schools were asked to describe their use of 14 self-regulated learning strategies and to estimate their verbal and mathematical efficacy. The groups of students from both schools included Whites, Blacks, Hispanics, and Asians. Students came from middle-class homes. Gifted students displayed significantly higher verbal efficacy, mathematical efficacy, and strategy use than regular students. In general, 11th-grade students surpassed 8th graders, who in turn surpassed 5th graders on the three measures of self-regulated learning. Students' perceptions of both verbal and mathematical efficacy were related to their use of self-regulated strategies. Evidence of relations between students' strategic efforts to learn and perceptions of academic self-efficacy is concordant with a triadic view of self-regulatory learning. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Early reading achievement of children in immigrant families: Is there an immigrant paradox?

This article examines whether longitudinal reading trajectories vary by the generational status of immigrant children as they begin formal schooling through the 3rd grade. The results of the hierarchical linear model indicated that 1st and 2nd generation children (i.e., those born in a foreign country and those born in the United States to foreign-born parents, respectively) had higher achievement scores at the spring of kindergarten than did 3rd generation children. Yet, controlling for race/ethnicity and maternal education fully reduced the 1st generation advantage. In addition, 1st generation children grew in reading achievement at a faster rate than did 3rd generation children. Controlling for a host of proximal and distal factors that included demographic, race/ethnic, family, and school characteristics somewhat reduced the association between generational status and rate of growth. First and 2nd generation children continued to increase their reading scores at a faster rate than did 3rd generation children. It is likely that additional factors not measured in the Early Childhood Longitudinal Survey-Kindergarten cohort, such as selection, cultural, or motivational factors, would be useful in further explaining the immigrant advantage. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Postinjury employment outcomes among African-American and White persons with spinal cord injury.

Investigated the postinjury employment status of 1,042 Whites and 196 Blacks enrolled in the National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center database to determine whether factors that influence re-employment differ for the 2 racial groups. These factors included age, education, and marital status at time of injury; gender; neurologic level and extent of injury; and vocational rehabilitation client status. Age and education were found to predict employment status for both Whites and Blacks, with education being an especially strong predictor for Blacks. Gender had an impact on re-employment only for Blacks, while neurologic level of injury was predictive only for Whites. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

But what about smart girls? Adolescent self-esteem and sex role perceptions as a function of academic achievement.

Examined adolescent self-esteem and sex-role perceptions as a function of academic achievement with 71 male and 69 female 7th graders divided into 3 groups (below average, average, and above average level of academic competence). Ss responded to a self-esteem inventory under the following 2 sets of instructions: (a) a standard set and (b) a set in which Ss were asked to respond as they thought a member of the same age and grade but of the opposite sex would respond. Results of the standard instruction investigation reveal a significant but moderate difference in self-esteem levels in favor of the boys. Reported levels of self-esteem also rose very significantly and commensurately with higher academic achievement for both sexes. Under opposite-sex instructions, girls attributed significantly but moderately higher levels of self-esteem to boys, and boys attributed significantly lower levels of self-esteem to girls. Girls in the above average group, however, rated boys significantly below themselves. Findings are discussed in terms of attribution theory and the possibility that academically competent girls possess more masculine or androgynous than feminine characteristics. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)