Molecular dynamics studies of atomic-scale tribological characteristics for different sliding systems

A slider-slab sliding model for hard-to-soft and soft-to-soft sliding systems with abrasive and non-abrasive wear conditions is used to investigate atomic-scale friction. The molecular dynamics simulation uses the Morse potential to calculate interatomic forces between atoms. Separation distance between the slider and the slab is changed to simulate repulsive and attractive interactive force fields exerted on interface between two sliding components. Effects of the interaction potential parameters on the sliding friction are investigated. The relationship of frictional force, normal force and temperature rise of the slider and the slab during sliding are established. Comparison of the hard-to-soft and the soft-to-soft sliding system are carried out and shows different tribological phenomena.     

Influence of Ultrasonic Oscillation on Static and Sliding Friction

Vibrations of varying frequency and amplitude are used in many technological areas to control and reduce friction. In this study we report the results of systematic high-precision measurements of the static and sliding friction under the influence of ultrasonic oscillations. We investigate the effect of ultrasonic oscillations for in-plane and out-of-plane oscillations in the completely relevant interval of oscillation amplitudes and sliding velocities and for various material pairings. The experimental results are interpreted on the basis of both macroscopic and microscopic models. There are two main effects which are of interest for tribological applications. Firstly, the frictional force typically decreases with increasing oscillation amplitude, with an oscillation amplitude of about 0.1???m typically being sufficient for a significant decrease of frictional force. Secondly, the decrease of force is larger at smaller sliding velocities; therefore, at sufficiently large oscillation amplitudes, the frictional force always increases with sliding velocity. This effect can be used to suppress frictionally induced vibrations.     

Effects of Sliding Velocity and Normal Load on Tribological Characteristics in Powder Lubrication

The antifriction ability of powder lubrication and the state of powder layer are strongly related to the service conditions. Therefore, the effects of sliding velocity and normal load under powder lubrication were studied using a face-to-face contact tribometer. In our work, some graphite, a widely used solid lubricant, was introduced into the frictional interface in the state of free powder. Varying friction coefficient and temperature rise were recorded online. The powder layer formed on the frictional surface of the bottom samples was observed by an optical microscope after tests. The comparative research demonstrated the tribological characteristics of powder lubrication are similar to that of polytetrafluoroethylene coating. Besides, the powder lubrication provides longer lubrication life, although the powder was difficult to seal and control during the tests. Within the proper range of sliding velocities and normal loads, the powder layer dynamically formed on the contact surface of the bottom samples, which resulted in the self-replenishing and oil-free lubrication. The powder layer inclined to deteriorate under lower velocity and higher load. The tests with higher velocity exhibited lower friction coefficient and higher temperature rise. The tests with lower load exhibited higher friction coefficient and lower temperature rise. The state of powder layer included typically four stages such as the full layer, the partial detachment, the serious detachment, and the complete destruction. The damage degree of powder layer is not in proportion to the friction coefficient or the temperature rise due to the particularity of powder lubrication.     

Development of contact sliders with nanotextures by femtosecond laser processing

The information on the frictional resistance of a self-propelled robotic capsule endoscope moving inside the body is very important for the design and the performance enhancement of such parameters of the capsule endoscope as power consumption, motion control and positioning accuracy. Based on this motivation, the ultimate goal of this research was to develop an analytical model that can predict the frictional resistance of the capsule endoscope moving inside the living body. In this work, experimental investigations of the fundamental frictional characteristics and the viscoelastic behaviors of the small intestine were performed by using custom-built testers and various capsule dummies. The small intestine of a pig was used for the experiments. Experimental results showed that the average frictional force was 10–50 mN and higher moving speed of the capsule dummy resulted in larger frictional resistance of the capsule. In addition, the friction coefficient did not change significantly with respect to the apparent area of contact between the capsule dummy and the intestine, and also the friction coefficients decreased with an increase in the normal load and varied from 0.08 to 0.2. Such frictional behaviors could be explained by the lubrication characteristics of the intestine surface and typical viscoelastic characteristics of the small intestine material. Also, based on the experimental results, a viscoelasticity model for the stress relaxation of the small intestine could be derived.     

法向载荷和滑动速度对纳米摩擦的影响

由于尺度效应,纳米尺度摩擦机制与宏观尺度有很大差别。在原子力显微镜实验基础之上,探讨纳米尺度干摩擦中微摩擦力与法向载荷以及滑动速度之间的关系。当法向载荷较小时,摩擦力与法向载荷之间并非线性关系,而近似与法向载荷的2/3次方成正比。当滑动速度小于摩擦系统临界滑动速度时,摩擦力随速度的对数增长而增长,而当速度超过临界滑动速度时,摩擦力几乎不受滑动速度变化的影响。     

Skin self-adaptation to friction trauma under reciprocal sliding conditions

In this study, skin self-rehabilitation and self-adaptation to friction trauma were investigated in vivo by means of friction testing, histological analysis and animal experiments under the simulated prosthetic socket rubbing condition. The denuded dorsal skin of rabbits was used to simulate stump skin. Results showed that after the skin went through several alternations of trauma and rehabilitation process, a keratinization appeared on the skin surface, which decreased the friction coefficient of skin and reduced the skin traumas. These results suggested that during the reciprocal sliding friction process, the rabbit skin suffered from friction trauma, rehabilitation and self-adaptation in turn.     

Skin self-adaptation to friction trauma under reciprocal sliding conditions

In this study, skin self-rehabilitation and self-adaptation to friction trauma were investigated in vivo by means of friction testing, histological analysis and animal experiments under the simulated prosthetic socket rubbing condition. The denuded dorsal skin of rabbits was used to simulate stump skin. Results showed that after the skin went through several alternations of trauma and rehabilitation process, a keratinization appeared on the skin surface, which decreased the friction coefficient of skin and reduced the skin traumas. These results suggested that during the reciprocal sliding friction process, the rabbit skin suffered from friction trauma, rehabilitation and self-adaptation in turn.     

Measurements of tribological properties of poly(pyrrole) thin film bearings

We report the results of a recent study on the tribological properties of electropolymerised thin films at light loads and low speeds. Poly(pyrrole) films incorporating different counter-ions have been electrochemically deposited onto gold electrodes on the plano-convex glass substrates and studied extensively. The measuring apparatus has been greatly improved from that reported earlier and now provides simultaneous monitoring of frictional force and wear. High precision capacitive gauging is employed to provide high resolutions of frictional force of better than 100 μN and height variation (wear) of 2 nm. A large number of specimens of poly(pyrrole) grown from five different counter-ions were prepared and their performances evaluated. The film morphology of each type of film was examined by atomic force microscopy (AFM) for control of the variability of film formation. Results are presented for the friction coefficients and wear rates observed for the films typically at a load of 2 N and a sliding speed of 5 mm s⁻¹. The effects of normal loading force and sliding speed on the friction coefficient are also discussed with a load range of 0.2–5 N and a sliding speed up to 30 mm s⁻¹.     

Tribological properties of selected PVD coatings when slid against ductile materials

In this paper, a physical vapour deposited (PVD) deposited TiB₂ coating is compared in dry sliding with commercial PVD titanium nitride (TiN), titanium aluminium nitride (TiAlN) and titanium carbonitirde (TiCN) as to frictional properties and tendency of counter material pick-up. The aim is to investigate if the superior behaviour of the TiB₂ coating experienced in severe sliding applications against aluminium alloys can be extended to other materials with a similarly poor tribological characteristics.A new tribological test for sliding contact has been used. The test configuration involves two crossed elongated cylindrical test specimens which are forced to slide axially against each other at a constant sliding speed and a gradually increasing normal load, while recording the friction. The evaluation is performed by correlating the friction history with the width, topography and composition of the sliding tracks as detected by optical and scanning electron microscopy.Coated cemented carbide (CC) test cylinders have been slid against cylinders of a Ti alloy (Ti–6Al–4V), an Al alloy (Al 7075) and Inconel 718. It was shown that the TiB₂ surface displayed superior friction and anti-sticking properties, when tested against the aluminium alloy. Against the Ti and Inconel alloys no major difference between the coatings could be found. Instead, it is concluded that the friction coefficient is determined by the plastic properties of the counter material since a complete transfer layer instantly builds up on the coating.It proved possible to estimate the friction force from the width of the sliding tracks, the Vickers hardness of the counter material and simple plastic considerations. This estimation also verifies the unexpectedly low friction of all coatings against the Ti alloy.     

基于田口方法的PEEK/AISI 630在海水环境中的磨损敏感性试验研究

海水液压元件摩擦副材料的表面粗糙度、接触载荷、滑动速度等因素对其摩擦磨损性能具有重要影响,而各因素之间又存在着摩擦磨损交互作用。基于田口方法对PEEK/AISI 630摩擦副进行摩擦磨损试验设计,研究了摩擦副的表面粗糙度、接触载荷和滑动速度对其磨损交互性、敏感性的影响。采用极差分析确定3因素在PEEK/AISI 630摩擦学行为中的相互关系和影响主次顺序;利用方差分析得到3因素对摩擦系数、磨损率影响的显著程度和贡献率;最后,对试验数据进行回归分析,从而获得表面粗糙度、接触载荷、滑动速度分别与摩擦系数、体积磨损量之间的经验公式(又称回归方程),并对回归模型进行可靠性分析。     

Tribological Characterisation of Air-Sprayed Epoxy-CNT Nanocomposite Coatings

Epoxy-carbon nanotube (CNT) composites are promising coating materials for wear and corrosion critical applications such as marine bearings, shafts, bolts and gears. However, there are insufficient tribological data available for design. This article described the fabrication and tribological testing of an epoxy-CNT composite coating composed of a commercial epoxy primer and commercial CNT filler. The CNT filler was pre-treated so that it was compatible with epoxy resin and was dispersed using a ball milling process. A reciprocating sliding test rig was built for the measurement of friction and wear of the coatings which were subjected to multi-pass testing using the ball-on-plate sliding geometry. The rig allowed testing with either constant or varying normal force, along with measurement of normal and tangential forces. Thus, the coefficient of friction (COF) under ramping or constant normal force could be determined. Following testing, the samples were examined using an optical microscopy to determine the severity of any galling which had taken place. The coatings were found to display encouraging properties in all aspects of testing. COF values of around 0.2 were recorded under a nominal contact pressure up to 1 GPa. This coating can be used for components which require anti-corrosion and low friction properties.     

Experimental Study on the Friction Characteristics of Textured Steel Surface with Ring-Shaped Pits under Lubricated Sliding Conditions

Surface texturing has been recognized to be an effective approach to modify the tribological performances of sliding surfaces. A ring-shaped texture has been fabricated on the surface of AISI1045 steel using a pulse laser, and reciprocating sliding tests were performed on a variable load tribometer (VLT). Frictional force of the textured surfaces was investigated under various geometrical parameters (inner radius, external radius, pitch, and offset ratio of texture units) and operating conditions (velocity and load). The results show that the width of the ring-shaped texture has a significant influence on antifriction, an optimum width for minimum friction is about 200 µm, and the staggered array of texture units is an effective way of reducing frictional force and wear.     

Evaluation of Tribological Behaviour of Polymeric Materials for Hip Prostheses Application

The tribological (friction and wear) behaviour of different polymeric materials was evaluated for hip prostheses applications. First, three polymeric materials were tested with fixed conditions of contact stress and sliding velocity. In a second phase, the material which presented the best results was selected. Its frictional behaviour under dynamic conditions of contact stress and sliding velocity was evaluated.     

Evolution of Tribological Properties of Reactor-Grade NiCr-B Coating

The tribological properties of reactor-grade NiCr-B hardfaced coating were studied at a constant load and sliding velocity. The objective of the present article is to investigate the changes in coefficient of friction that accompanies morphological and phase changes occurring in wear scars. Such changes result from the sliding with a spherical steel ball. The transition from the low to high coefficient of friction at higher sliding distance is attributed to severe cracking as well as fretting wear–induced deformation of surface oxide scales. Increased value of coefficient of friction arises from protracted sliding over longer distances continued to deform and detachment of weakly adhered oxides like Fe₂O₃ and Cr₂O₃. Such scales are tribochemically formed on the wear scars and contribute to alteration in the coefficient of friction. The evolution of oxide phases in wear scars is found to be one of the main mechanisms for dissipation of frictional force.     

以汽油和甲醇为燃料时小型二冲程发动机摩擦特性比较

采用往复振动机模拟小型二冲程发动机运转工况，实验研究汽油和甲醇为燃料时发动机气缸和活塞环间的摩擦特性，并比较分别使用润滑油新油、润滑油老化油、润滑油新油和老化油的混合油作为润滑油时气缸和活塞环间的摩擦特性。结果表明，以甲醇为燃料时的摩擦因数和磨损量均小于以汽油为燃料时的摩擦因数和磨损量，特别是使用添加了润滑油新油的燃料时的摩擦因数和磨损量最小。通过黏度和热重（TG）分析，探讨甲醇燃料改善气缸和活塞环间的摩擦特性的原因，结果表明，甲醇燃料具有较高的黏度和较低的摩擦因数，因而以甲醇为燃料时可以降低磨损     

Analytical determination of friction resistance as a function of normal load and geometry of surface irregularities

A mathematical modeling and simulation of friction during steady state sliding of metals, based on the upper-bound approach, is demonstrated. The existence of wedge-shaped protrusions on the tool surface is assumed. Pressing these protrusions onto the workpiece and sliding the tool along the workpiece produces asperities on the surface of the workpiece. These asperities move in a wave-like motion along the surface layer and cause plastic deformation through a specified depth under the surface. This plastic deformation combines with local friction between the tool and the workpiece along the asperity interface to produce resistance to sliding. The relation between the normal pressure and the sliding resistance is established for the entire range of pressure levels from zero to infinity. The apparent Coulomb coefficient of friction for lower levels of normal pressure and the constant friction factor for excessive load levels are determined. The transition region from Coulomb coefficient of friction to constant friction factor also becomes clear. A mathematical determination is obtained by means of a force equilibrium considering the concept of a contact surface friction ratio. The force of resistance to sliding is related both to the geometry of the asperity of the surface of the tool and to the constant friction factor, which is used for measuring a local frictional force along the interface of each asperity.     

High-Performance Heterocyclic Friction Modifiers for Boundary Lubrication

The demand for increased energy efficiency continuously drives the development of new lubricants. Here we report the design and synthesis of hexahydrotriazine, triazine, and cyclen derivatives as friction modifiers (FMs) for enhanced fuel economy. This series of sulfur- and phosphorus-free oil-soluble heterocyclic ring-based molecules exhibits differing thermal and chemical stability depending on the degree of aromatization and number of linking spacers within the central heterocyclic ring. Thermally stable triazine and cyclen FMs significantly increase friction performance in the boundary lubrication regime. Cyclens in particular reduce friction by up to 70% over a wide temperature range. Detailed experimental investigations of the newly synthesized FMs at elevated temperatures demonstrate their favorable tribological performance under four operating conditions: variable-temperature sliding, linear speed ramping, reciprocating sliding, and rolling–sliding contact. These latest experimental findings suggest the potential of the application of “designer” heterocyclic FMs for reducing frictional loss in motor vehicles.     

Friction and Thermal Effects of Engineering Plastics Sliding Against Steel and DLN-Coated Counterfaces

Polymers are increasingly used in tribological applications, because of their self-lubricating ability, corrosion resistance and chemical compatibility. However, their performance depends strongly on the parameters of the total tribological system. Not only polymer characteristics, but also counterface properties become important because of their influence on friction and wear, on surface energy and on the thermal conductivity of the total system. Applying a Diamond-Like Nanocomposite (DLN) coating on a steel counterface can improve the tribological behaviour of the sliding couple under certain conditions. In the case of metal sliding against DLN, the high hardness and the wear resistance of the coating is advantageous for better tribological properties. However, for polymers sliding against DLN, the lower thermal conductivity of the DLN coating compared with a steel mating surface dominates friction and wear. In case of polyamides this results in worse tribological performance in contact with the DLN coating, because of polymer melting. In the case of more rigid polymers, such as, e.g., POM-H and PETP, lower coefficients of friction lead to lower frictional heat generation. In these cases, the thermal characteristics of the counterface are less important and the lower surface energy of the DLN coating is favourable for decreased adhesion between the polymer and the coating and consequently better tribological properties.     

Study of tribological performance of ECR-CVD diamond-like carbon coatings on steel substrates: Part 2. The analysis of wear mechanism

This paper describes the tribological performance of diamond-like carbon (DLC) coatings deposited on AISI 440C steel substrates by electron cyclotron resonance chemical vapor deposition (ECR-CVD) process. A variety of analytic techniques were used to characterize the coatings, such as Raman spectroscopy, atomic force microscopy (AFM) and nano-indentation. The sliding wear and friction experiments were carried out by the conventional ball-on-disk tribometry against 100Cr6 steel counterbody at various normal loads (1-10 N) and sliding speeds (2-15 cm/s). All the wear tests were conducted under dry sliding condition in ambient air for a total rotation cycle of 1 × 10⁵ (sliding distance ∼2.2 km). Surfaces of the coatings and the steel balls were examined before and after the sliding wear tests. The DLC coatings that had been tested all showed relatively low values of friction coefficient, in the range of 0.1-0.2 at a steady-state stage, and low specific wear rates (on the order of 10⁻⁸ mm³/Nm). It was found that higher normal loads or sliding speeds reduced the wear rates of the coatings. Plastic deformation became more evident on the coating surface during the sliding wear test at higher contact stresses. The friction-induced transformation of the coating surface into a graphite-like phase was revealed by micro-Raman analysis, and the flash temperature of the contact asperities was estimated. It was suggested that the structural transformation taking place within the wear tracks was mainly due to the formation of compact wear debris layer rather than the frictional heating effect. On the other hand, an adherent transfer layer (tribolayer) was formed on the counterface, which was closely related to the steady-state friction during sliding and the wear mechanisms. Fundamental knowledge combined with the present tribological study led to the conclusion that adhesive wear along with abrasion was probably the dominant wear mechanism for the DLC/steel sliding systems. Additionally, fatigue processes might also be involved in the wear of the coatings.     

Analytical model development for the prediction of the frictional resistance of a capsule endoscope inside an intestine

For the purpose of optimizing the design of the locomotion mechanism as well as the body shape of a self-propelled capsule endoscope, an analytical model for the prediction of frictional resistance of the capsule moving inside the small intestine was first developed. The model was developed by considering the contact geometry and viscoelasticity of the intestine, based on the experimental investigations on the material properties of the intestine and the friction of the capsule inside the small intestine. In order to verify the model and to investigate the distributions of various stress components applied to the capsule, finite element (FE) analyses were carried out. The comparison of the frictional resistance between the predicted and the experimental values suggested that the proposed model could predict the frictional force of the capsule with reasonable accuracy. Also, the FE analysis results of various stress components revealed the stress relaxation of the intestine and explained that such stress relaxation characteristics of the intestine resulted in lower frictional force as the speed of the capsule decreased. These results suggested that the frontal shape of the capsule was critical to the design of the capsule with desired frictional performance. It was shown that the proposed model can provide quantitative estimation of the frictional resistance of the capsule under various moving conditions inside the intestine. The model is expected to be useful in the design optimization of the capsule locomotion inside the intestine.