Whether close or far: Social distance effects on perceived balance in friendship networks.

Under what circumstances are individuals' perceptions of friendship relations shaped by the balance schema? Using data from 4 organizations varying in size from 21 to 33 members, the authors investigated how ego's perception of the social distance from ego to alter affected the proportion of alter's friendships perceived by ego as balanced. Balance involves both (a) reciprocated friendships between 2 people, and (b) transitive triplets, in which 2 friends of a person are themselves friends. Graphical and regression analyses supported a composite curvilinear model that combined the predictions of emotional tension and cognitive miser perspectives: People tended to perceive relations close to and distant from themselves as more balanced than relations of intermediate distance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Friendship and social competence in a sample of preschool children attending Head Start.

Relations between friendship (operationalized as reciprocated or nonreciprocated sociometric choices) and social competence were studied for children (mostly African American) attending Head Start. Initial analyses showed that children with reciprocated friends had higher social competence scores than children without reciprocated friends. Correlations suggested that the number of reciprocated friendships was associated with the social competence indicators studied here. Beyond the cost of having no reciprocated friends, having nonreciprocated friendships was not a liability. Cross-time analyses suggested differing patterns of relations for boys and girls. Having versus not having a reciprocated friend was unstable across time, because there was a trend toward participating in reciprocated friendships from 3 to 4 years of age (most older children had at least 1 reciprocated friend). For girls there was a positive relation between the number of reciprocated friendships at Time 1 and at Time 2. No benefit (in terms of social competence) was found for children making the transition from 1 classroom to the next with a friend. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

It takes three: Selection, influence, and de-selection processes of depression in adolescent friendship networks.

The authors of this study tested a selection–influence–de-selection model of depression. This model explains friendship influence processes (i.e., friends' depressive symptoms increase adolescents' depressive symptoms) while controlling for two processes: friendship selection (i.e., selection of friends with similar levels of depressive symptoms) and friendship de-selection (i.e., de-selection of friends with dissimilar levels of depressive symptoms). Further, this study is unique in that these processes were studied both inside and outside the school context. The authors used a social network approach to examine 5 annual measurements of data in a large (N =847) community-based network of adolescents and their friends (M = 14.3 years old at first measurement). Results supported the proposed model: adolescents tend to select friends with similar levels of depression, and friends may increase each other's depressive symptoms as relationships endure. These two processes were most salient outside the school context. At the same time, friendships seemed to be ended more frequently if adolescents' level of depressive symptoms was dissimilar to that of their friends. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Prospective associations between friendship adjustment and social strategies: Friendship as a context for building social skills.

The proposal that friendships provide a context for the development of social skills is widely accepted. Yet little research exists to support this claim. In the present study, children and adolescents (N = 912) were presented with vignettes in which a friend encountered a social stressor and they could help the friend and vignettes in which they encountered a stressor and could seek help from the friend. Social strategies in response to these vignettes were assessed in the fall and spring of the school year. Different indicators of friendship adjustment had unique effects on youths' strategies in response to helping tasks. Whereas having more friends predicted decreases in avoidant or hostile strategies, having high-quality friendships predicted emotionally engaged strategies that involved talking about the problem. Moreover, whereas having more friends predicted increases in relatively disengaged strategies, like distraction and acting like the problem never happened, having high-quality friendships predicted decreases in these strategies. The present study also tested whether youths' strategies in the fall predicted changes in friendship adjustment by the spring. Only strategies which may be seen as major friendship transgressions (i.e., avoiding or blaming the friend when the friend encounters a problem) predicted changes in friendship over time. Collectively, these results provide important new information on the interplay between social competencies and friendship experiences and suggest that friendships may provide a critical venue for the development of important relationship skills. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

A longitudinal study of friendship development.

At 3-wk intervals during their 1st term at the university, 53 female and 31 male freshmen completed questionnaires regarding their relationships with 2 same-sex individuals whom they had just met. Results showed that dyads that successfully developed into close friendships by the end of the fall school term differed behaviorally and attitudinally from dyads that did not progress. As the friendships developed, the intimacy level of dyadic interaction accounted for an increasing percentage of the variance in ratings of friendship intensity beyond that accounted for by the sheer quantity of interaction. Ratings of relationship benefits were consistently positively correlated with friendship intensity and increased as the relationship progressed. There were no differences in ratings of relationship costs between close and nonclose friends. Dyadic behavior patterns and attitude ratings at the end of the fall school term were good predictors of friendship status 3 mo later. Motivational and situational factors were also correlated with friendship outcomes. Sex differences were noted: Females engaged in more casual affection behaviors with their close than with their nonclose friends. Males engaged in little casual affection with their friends, regardless of their degree of closeness. Results replicate the major findings of R. B. Hays (1984). (29 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Friendships of preschool children in mainstreamed playgroups.

The friendship patterns of 4-year-old mildly developmentally delayed and 3- and 4-year old nonhandicapped children participating in a series of mainstreamed playgroups were investigated. Results indicated that the majority of children in each of the three groups established a preference for a specific peer on the basis of a unilateral criterion, but only a small proportion of mildly delayed and 3-year-old nonhandicapped children were able to establish reciprocal friendships. The delayed group preferred nonhandicapped older children but were least preferred as friends overall by playgroup participants. For those nonhandicapped children meeting the friendship criteria, interactions with friends produced more advanced and positive social play in comparison with interactions with nonfriends. However, these differences did not occur for the mildly delayed group, suggesting that delayed children may not take advantage of the potential benefits associated with friendships. Possible reasons for these problems and the need to identify relevant social processes in friendship formation are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The contribution of extracurricular activities to adolescent friendships: New insights through social network analysis.

Extracurricular activities are settings that are theorized to help adolescents maintain existing friendships and develop new friendships. The overarching goal of the current investigation was to examine whether coparticipating in school-based extracurricular activities supported adolescents' school-based friendships. We used social network methods and data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to examine whether dyadic friendship ties were more likely to exist among activity coparticipants while controlling for alternative friendship processes, namely dyadic homophily (e.g., demographic and behavioral similarities) and network-level processes (e.g., triadic closure). Results provide strong evidence that activities were associated with current friendships and promoted the formation of new friendships. These associations varied based on school level (i.e., middle vs. high school) and activity type (i.e., sports, academic, arts). Results of this study provide new insight into the complex relations between activities and friendship that can inform theories of their developmental outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2011 APA, all rights reserved)     

Links between social network closure and child well-being: The organizing role of friendship context.

Third grade children (N = 404) and their mothers completed questionnaires and participated in interviews designed to identify children's friendships across multiple contexts, determine levels of social network closure for these friendships, and assess child well-being. Cluster analyses revealed distinct patterns in the contexts in which children's friendships were maintained. Closure was highest for children whose friendship clusters heavily represented relatives as friends and lowest when friends were from schools and the broader community. Intermediate levels of closure were observed for the clusters of neighborhood friends and friends from church and school. Both friendship cluster and, to some extent, ethnicity moderated associations between closure and indicators of well-being. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Friendships and adaptation in the life course.

To consider friendships and their significance through the life course requires, first, differentiation of deep structure (i.e., reciprocity) from surface structure (i.e., the social exchange) and, second, assessment within a multifaceted framework that simultaneously emphasizes having friends, the identity of one's friends, and relationship quality. Having friends is correlated with a sense of well being across the life span, but developmental outcome also depends on the identity of one's friends as well as the quality of one's relationships with them. Greater attention needs to be given to the manner in which friendships differ from one another, continuities and changes across major developmental transitions, and differentiation of developmental pathways through which friendship experience contributes to individual outcome. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Close friendships among senior adults.

The purpose of this research was to evaluate the relative contributions of personal, affective, and social exchange characteristics to satisfaction with the best friendship. Senior adults (N?=?76) described and evaluated their best friendships in terms of positive and negative affect, equity, reciprocity of social support, and satisfaction. The individual's endorsement of communal and exchange orientations were included as personal characteristics. The study confirms that a communal orientation enhances satisfaction with a best friendship and that conflict and negativity detract from it. Social exchange characteristics were not related to friendship satisfaction. The need to reevaluate the role of social exchange in close relationships is discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Friendships in Middle School: Influences on Motivation and School Adjustment.

In this 2-year longitudinal study (n=242), the authors examined relations of having a reciprocated friend and characteristics of a reciprocated friend to students' social and academic adjustment to middle school. With respect to having a friend, 6th-grade students without friends showed lower levels of prosocial behavior, academic achievement, and emotional distress than did students with reciprocated friendships. Not having a friend in 6th grade also was related to emotional distress 2 years later. Evidence that motivational processes mediate relations between friends' and individuals' prosocial behavior was obtained. For students with reciprocated friendships (n=173). friends' prosocial behavior predicted change in individuals' prosocial behavior in 8th grade by way of changes in goals to behave prosocially. Implications for studying friendship influence in middle school are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Stability and change in childhood and adolescent friendships.

Two studies examined the stability of existing friendships and the formation of new friendships during a school year. In Study 1, the friendships of 16 female and 33 male 1st graders and 31 female and 32 male 4th graders were assessed in the fall and again in the spring. In Study 2, the friendships of 25 female and 34 male 4th graders and 32 female and 22 male 8th graders were assessed in the fall and the spring. In both studies, most friendships present in the fall remained constant in the spring. Although the stability of friendships generally increased between 1st and 4th grade, it did not increase regularly between 4th and 8th grade. The formation of new friendships varied consistently with age. First and 4th graders made more new friends during the year than they lost; 8th graders lost more old friends than they gained. Sex differences in friendship stability were not consistent, but several findings suggest that girls tend more often than boys to limit the size of their friendship groups. The importance of examining stability and change in friendships simultaneously, and the significance of individual differences in friendship stability are discussed. (18 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Conflict and childhood friendship in Taiwan and Canada.

The present study assessed cross-cultural differences in friendship characteristics among children (aged 8–9 yrs) from collectivist and individualist cultures. Same-sex dyads of Grade 3 and Grade 4 students in a middle-class suburb of Toronto, Canada (n?=?1,227) and students from a middle-class suburb of Taipei, Taiwan (n?=?965) reported on the presence of companionship, conflict, help, security, and closeness in their friendships. The analysis reveals that long-term stability rates for friendships were not significantly different between nations or between boys and girls. Companionship was a significant predictor of friendship continuation among students in Taiwan. Friends in Taiwan reported significantly less conflict in their relationships than did friends in Canada. There was also greater agreement among friends in Taiwan than in Canada on the presence of conflict in the friendship relationship. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Individual differences and developmental changes in preschoolers' friendships.

Although uniqueness of peer relationships has been demonstrated (e.g., H. S. Ross and S. P. Lollis; see record 1990-07257-001), investigators have not examined the degree to which interaction patterns within peer relationships are stable over time. To examine stability in the qualitative features of preschoolers' friendships, 24 pairs of friends were observed in 2 play sessions scheduled approximately 1 yr apart. A multivariate assessment of the friends' interactions was conducted to identify domains of social interaction showing continuity or change. Correlations between Time 1 and Time 2 scores indicated that dyads' scores on measures of positive social orientation, cohesiveness, and control were significantly correlated over time. Paired t tests revealed that coordinated play and positive social orientation were more salient at Time 2. Results are related to the study of individual differences in friendship and the use of a dyadic analysis of behavior. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Award for Distinguished Scientific Early Career Contributions to Psychology: Jeffrey G. Parker.

Recognizes Jeffrey G. Parker for his receipt of the 2000 Award for Distinguished Scientific Early Career Contributions to Psychology. The award was given for outstanding contributions to the understanding of the nature and significance of friendships in children's social and emotional development. By combining carefully constructed self-report measures with detailed observational research in ingenious analog settings, his work has helped differentiate the domain of friendship from the domain of peer acceptance, has helped articulate the core features of close friendship, has demonstrated how the features of children's friendships affect their well-being, and has emphasized that temporal and contextual perspectives are essential to understanding children's adjustment with friends. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Friendship and friendship quality in middle childhood: Links with peer group acceptance and feelings of loneliness and social dissatisfaction.

The distinction between friendship adjustment and acceptance by the peer group was examined. Third- through 5th-grade children (N?=?881) completed sociometric measures of acceptance and friendship, a measure of loneliness, a questionnaire on the features of their very best friendships, and a measure of their friendship satisfaction. Results indicated that many low-accepted children had best friends and were satisfied with these friendships. However, these children's friendships were lower than those of other children on most dimensions of quality. Having a friend, friendship quality, and group acceptance made separate contributions to the prediction of loneliness. Results indicate the utility of the new friendship quality measure and the value of distinguishing children's friendship adjustment from their general peer acceptance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Changes in functions of three relations during adolescence.

Three functions of interpersonal relations (attempt at behavior control, intimacy, and nurture) were assessed in friendship, mother–child, and father–child relations of adolescents to examine age, relational, sex, and mother–father differences. 60 female and 60 male 4th, 7th, and 10th graders and undergraduates rated 8 statements that portrayed interpersonal interactions for each relationship to indicate how closely the statements described Ss' actual interpersonal relations. Parents exerted greater control than friends across grades. Intimacy in friendship was lower than in parent–child relations at 4th grade, but it surpassed the parent level by 10th grade. Nurturance remained relatively consistent and high across grades for parents, whereas it increased with increasing age of adolescents in friendship. Female friendship involved higher intimacy than male friendship. Only males perceived fathers to be more nurturant than mothers. Results are interpreted in terms of their consistency with the Piagetian/relational framework of social development and their implications for research concerning parental and peer conformity in adolescent socialization. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Development of friendship reasoning: A study of interindividual differences in intraindividual change.

Structure and content aspects of interpersonal understanding in friendship reasoning (based on R. L. Selman's [1980] model) are investigated by examining microdevelopmental processes and individual differences. In a longitudinal study, 97 Icelandic subjects at 9, 12, and 15 years of age were interviewed about six issues concerning Ss' own close friendships. The sample was stratified according to gender, social class, and level of cognitive development. Results of the microdevelopmental analysis support the cumulative nature of the development of friendship reasoning. Statistically significant differences between issues were obtained for each measurement. Furthermore, prerequisite relationships among issues are observed to emerge over time. Analysis of individual differences shows that social class and level of cognitive development exert a stable influence over time on friendship reasoning. The order of development of the issues is not affected by individual differences. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Children's goals and strategies in response to conflicts within a friendship.

Little is known about the skills required for friendship, as distinct from those required for peer acceptance. The present study examined whether children's goals and strategies in friendship conflict situations are predictive of their friendship adjustment, after accounting for level of peer acceptance. Fourth- and 5th-grade children (N?=?696) responded to 30 hypothetical situations in which they were having a conflict with a friend. Results indicated that children's goals were highly related to their strategies and that children's goals and strategies were predictive of their real-life friendship adjustment. Pursuing the goal of revenge toward a friend was the goal or strategy most strongly associated with lacking friends and having poor-quality friendships. Gender differences were also found for each goal and strategy, with girls displaying a more prosocial goal and strategy orientation than boys. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)