Two-directional toolpath correction in single-point incremental forming using model predictive control

Incremental sheet forming (ISF) is an emerging forming technology that promises high flexibility and formability. These properties make it suited for small-scale and customised production. However, the poor geometric accuracy of ISF limits the wide application of this flexible forming technology. This paper presents a two-directional toolpath correction approach to enhance ISF forming accuracy using a model predictive control (MPC) algorithm. A toolpath optimisation method for vertical toolpath correction has been validated in our previous work (Lu et al., Int J Adv Manuf Technol 72:1–14, 2015), and it helps to reduce errors in the base of the test shapes to a suitable level while its major limitation is that horizontal geometric errors are relatively large. This paper extends our previous work (Lu et al., Int J Adv Manuf Technol 72:1–14, 2015) by augmenting the vertical control module with a new control module for horizontal toolpath correction. The proposed control algorithm was experimentally validated in single-point incremental sheet forming (SPIF) using two forming case studies. In the first case study (a truncated pyramid), two control approaches with different assumptions for the horizontal springback distribution along the horizontal cross-sectional profile were tested and compared. Then, the developed MPC control algorithm was applied to form a more complex asymmetric shape. The results show that the developed strategy can reduce the forming errors in the wall and base of the formed shape compared to the existing works. The ISF process with MPC control leads to significant accuracy improvement in comparison with the typical ISF process that is without toolpath control.     

Effects of forming parameters on temperature in frictional stir incremental sheet forming

Frictional stir Incremental sheet forming (ISF) is a new technology used to fabricate parts of hard-to-form materials without using heating equipment. Thus far, limited information is known about the effects of main forming parameters, except spindle speed of the tool, on the temperature of formed sheet in friction-stir ISF. The effects of six forming parameters, namely, sheet thickness, tool vertical step, tool diameter, spindle speed, feed rate, and wall angle of the formed part, were identified using the design of experiment of orthogonal array, analysis of response tables and graphs, and analysis of variance. Results show that spindle speed, feed rate, sheet thickness, and tool vertical step significantly affect the temperature of the sheet. In addition, the temperature of the sheet is significantly increased by increasing sheet thickness, tool vertical step, and spindle speed but significantly decreased with increasing tool feed rate.

     

An approach to eliminate stepped features in multistage incremental sheet forming process: Experimental and FEA analysis

Incremental sheet forming (ISF) is a recently developed manufacturing technique. In ISF, forming is done by applying deformation force through the motion of Numerically controlled (NC) single point forming tool on the clamped sheet metal blank. Single Point Incremental sheet forming (SPISF) is also known as a die-less forming process because no die is required to fabricate any component by using this process. Now a day it is widely accepted for rapid manufacturing of sheet metal components. The formability of SPISF process improves by adding some intermediate stages into it, which is known as Multi-stage SPISF (MSPISF) process. However during forming in MSPISF process because of intermediate stages stepped features are generated. This paper investigates the generation of stepped features with simulation and experimental results. An effective MSPISF strategy is proposed to remove or eliminate this generated undesirable stepped features.     

Water jetting technology: an alternative in incremental sheet metal forming

This exploratory paper aims to introduce a high-speed Water Jet (WJ) as a tool for die-less Incremental Sheet Metal Forming (ISMF). First experiments indicate that in the case of Water Jet Incremental Sheet Metal Forming (WJISMF) the forming time, energy efficiency and forming accuracy are rather poor compared to ISMF with a rigid tool. However, the proposed technology brings higher process flexibility and better tools to workpiece interface conditions. For a better process characterization, the relative jet diameter is introduced, which is defined as the ratio between the WJ diameter and the blank thickness. Relevant process parameters are identified and technological windows are phenomenological defined, shoving that WJISMF can be applied as a complementary solution to ISMF with a rigid tool.     

Adaptation of machining toolpath to distorted geometries: application to remove a constant thickness on rough casting prosthesis

This study proposes a method to adapt the geometry of the toolpath to a specified target. In the case study presented, the geometrical target is to remove a constant thickness on the rough workpiece. This case is normally present in the polishing of the femoral component of knee prostheses. In fact, an operator carries out these operations manually. The aim of this study is to contribute to the automation of prosthesis production, notably, in the preparation of surface polishing. The proposed method can deform and adapt a toolpath to ensure the required geometry of the machined surface. The proposed toolpath deformation method is composed of three steps: alignment, toolpath deformation, and toolpath smoothing. Alignment between the measured surface of the roughcast prostheses and the nominal toolpath is carried out by an Iterative Closest Point (ICP) algorithm. The principle of this algorithm is to find the optimal rigid transformation to readjust the toolpath on the measured surface. Subsequently, the toolpath is deformed to remove the constant thickness of the roughcast prostheses. Next, to increase the machined quality, a smoothing stage is carried out on the obtained toolpath. Experimental tests on industrial prostheses geometry are conducted to validate the effectiveness of this method.     

A novel approach for temperature control in ISF supported by laser and resistance heating

Aeronautical applications often require small batches of large-scale sheet metal parts made from titanium and its alloys. Due to the low formability of titanium at room temperature, warm forming processes are necessary. Incremental sheet metal forming (ISF) is suitable for production of prototypes and small batches as well as large-scale parts. A short review of the experimental work done by international scientists in the field of warm ISF including stationary and moved temperature sensors will be presented mostly applied from the backside of the sheet metal. The present paper shows a new approach for a tool setup including a thermocouple inside of the tool. Hence, the sensor for temperature measurement was moved with the forming zone. Furthermore, a suitable closed loop control including a PID controller will be presented. The characteristics of the controller will be discussed. By means of two different warm ISF processes (ISF with resistance heating and laser-assisted ISF), the applicability of the developed setup will be analysed and evaluated. It will be shown that the experimental setup is capable to ensure minimal temperatures needed to ensure adequate formability of Ti grade 5.     

基于UG二次开发的数控渐进成形轨迹优化

渐进成形零件的表面质量与压头轨迹紧密相关,目前的轨迹生成软件不能有效地控制表面质量,零件无法定量满足表面质量要求.提出了一种新的通过控制压头轨迹来控制渐进成形零件表面质量的方法.利用UG二次开发编程,实现对压头轨迹的优化,该方法得到的轨迹能够保持零件残余波峰不大于设定值.     

铝型材多点三维拉压复合弯曲成形工艺

轻量化薄壁型材三维弯曲结构件是高端装备制造业中一种难成形加工的关键零部件。针对此类制件的高精度、低成本的成形需求,提出一种拉弯-压弯相结合的铝合金型材三维弯曲成形工艺,设计多点联动的拉压复合成形单元体结构,通过水平方向由夹钳带动拉弯,垂直方向由各单元体上液压执行机构压弯,实现"W"形三维弯曲零件的成形,并研制成形装备样机。建立分析成形过程及回弹预测的数值仿真模型,通过试验对模型的有效性进行验证,仿真结果与试验结果回弹变形一致,回弹预测最大误差小于15%。此外,研究拉力对矩形截面型材拉压复合成形件回弹变形的影响规律,预拉伸力较补拉伸力对成形件的回弹减小趋势更为明显,当预拉伸力从零达到临界塑性应力Aσ_s时,总回弹减少了26.81%,为保证成形件不发生截面畸变和破裂等成形缺陷,确定了预拉伸力为Aσ_s、补拉伸力为0.3Aσ_s的最优工艺参数。所提出的多点三维拉压复合弯曲成形工艺解决了W形一类型材传统三维拉弯无法实现的多向曲率半径复杂弯曲成形的技术难题,为实现镜面对称结构件的成对一次成形提供了一种新方法。     

Numerical simulation of electric hot incremental sheet forming of 1050 aluminum with and without preheating

Incremental sheet forming (ISF) consists of deforming the sheet, through a spherical punch, punctually and progressively until it reaches the desired geometry. Compared to the conventional process, the ISF can achieve much higher levels of formability. But the stresses and residual strains are often pushed to the limit on the path, producing a piece with brittle behavior, which is not desirable for applications in engineering. To work around this inconvenience, one solution would be to perform the conformation at high temperatures, a process known in engineering as hot forming. This study aims to evaluate the behavior of the state of stresses and strains in the hot incremental sheet forming of 1050 aluminum alloy, with and without pre-heating, using the finite element method. This behavior has been studied by numerical simulation, using the software RADIOSS, which has a suitable formulation for inserting the effects of temperature and strain rate in the material. The results show a decline in the forces for electric hot incremental sheet forming preheated (EHISFP) compared to the electric hot incremental sheet forming (EHISF). Moreover, for these same cases, there was a gain in relation to the geometric precision on average more than 4%.     

Deformation mechanics in single-point and accumulative double-sided incremental forming

Single-point incremental forming (SPIF) uses one small hemispherically ended tool moving along a predefined toolpath to locally deform a completely peripherally clamped sheet of metal such that the sum total of the local deformations yields the final desired shape of the sheet. While SPIF is characterized by greater formability than conventional forming processes, it suffers from significant geometric inaccuracy. Accumulative double-sided incremental forming (ADSIF) is a substantial improvement over SPIF in which one hemispherically ended tool is used on each side of the sheet metal. The supporting tool moves synchronously with the forming tool, therefore acting as a local but mobile die. ADSIF results in considerably enhanced geometric accuracy and increased formability of the formed part as compared to SPIF. In light of the aforementioned advantages of ADSIF as compared with SPIF, an investigation of the mechanics associated with the ADSIF process, which has yet to be presented in the literature, is warranted. The present study sheds light on the differences in deformation mechanisms between SPIF and ADSIF. Finite element analyses are performed to simulate deformation in the two processes, and a detailed analysis of the deformation history is presented. It is shown that the presence of the supporting tool in ADSIF elicits substantial differences in the plastic strain, hydrostatic pressure, and shear strains as compared to SPIF. The implications of these trends on the prevalent modes of deformation in ADSIF along with possible explanations for increased formability observed in the process arediscussed.     

多光源多角度自动采集系统的机械设计

非常详细地介绍了自行设计的图像自动采集系统的机械部分．该系统不仅可实现被采集对象相对采集摄像头在水平面内纵、横双方向准确移动,同时可将被采集对象绕水平轴任意旋转一定角度,实现对多光源多角度下的自动采集．该系统结构简单、设计合理,具有较好的实用性。     

单点增量成形制件整体精度研究

以典型圆锥台作为研究对象,由材料的变形机理出发,解析制件整体精度的机理和主要影响因素。采用Box-Behnken 设计(BBD)试验方法,对主要影响因素中的工具头直径、层间距、板厚、成形角设计四因素三水平曲面响应试验,建立两个方向上几何误差的二阶响应模型,得到工艺参数对制件在水平方向和垂直方向上精度的单一及交互影响规律。最后,利用响应模型对两个方向几何误差进行同步最小优化,得到制件整体精度最优时的工艺参数组合：工具头直径6 mm、层间距0.5 mm、板厚1 mm、成形角45 °,此时两个方向的几何误差分别为1.914 6 mm和-0.157 mm,实现了制件整体精度的工艺优化和稳健控制。     

复杂钣金零件渐进成形方法

以复杂钣金零件－人面部模型零件为例,论述基于UG软件的建模及建模过程中应注意的问题、支撑模型的制作及其加工代码的生成、适用于渐进成形正成形过程的加工代码生成处理过程,给出加工代码的详细信息,成功加工出质量较高的人面部模型。人面部模型渐进成形试验结果表明,利用渐进成形正成形方法可以成形出形状复杂的钣金零件,生产小批量复杂零件可以节省时间与费用;UG生成的三轴数控加工代码需要通过处理才能应用于渐进成形正成形过程;复杂钣金件渐进成形过程中定位精度非常重要,定位精度高的零件厚度分布符合 的规律,并可以成功成形出设计的零件,定位精度误差较大时零件厚度分布不均匀,成形工具头与板 料的过度挤压侧板料厚度变薄急剧从而引起零件的过早破裂。     

拉深孔成形的工艺参数优化与实验研究

为了探讨拉深孔成形技术对提高板料成形性能的有效性，以圆筒形件为研究对象，研究了拉深孔成形条件下的成形性能。采用数值模拟、人工神经网络和遗传算法进行板材成形工艺参数优化，得到了最优化的压边力和拉深孔相对密度等拉深工艺参数。根据优化后的结果设计并完成了相关的工艺实验，取得了与有限元模拟相一致的结果，证明了拉深孔成形技术是一种提高板材成形性能的行之有效的方法。     

Tool path correction algorithm for single-point incremental forming of sheet metal

There exists some error between the manufactured part shape and the designed target shape due to springback of this part after forming. To reduce the error, an iterative algorithm of closed-loop control for correcting tool path of the single-point incremental forming, based on Fast Fourier and wavelet transforms, has been developed. Moreover, the data of the springback shapes, after unloading, of the sheet metal parts formed with the trial and corrected tool paths, used for iterative correction of tool path in the algorithm, are obtained with finite element model (FEM) simulation. Then, a truncated pyramid-shaped workpiece, whose average errors are +0.183/?0.175 mm, was made with the corrected tool path after three iterations solved by the above algorithm and simulation data. The results show that the tool path correction algorithm with Fourier and wavelet transforms is reasonable and the means with FEM simulation are effective. It can be taken as a new approach for single-point incremental forming of sheet metal and tool path design.     

基于STL模型的双面数控渐进成形干涉检查与修正

针对双面数控渐进成形中工具头与板材之间容易发生干涉的问题, 提出了基于STL模型的工具头与板材干涉检查与修正方法。对于主工具头，采用等距面生成无干涉的成形轨迹，以避免干涉；对于副工具头，将干涉类型分为工具头与板材非成形特征区的干涉和工具头与板材成形特征区的干涉两种类型，并通过判断副工具头刀位点与支撑面的位置关系来确定是否发生干涉。算法应用实例和成形实验结果表明，所提出的算法能够避免干涉，进而生成无干涉的工具头运动轨迹。     

A novel continuous roll forming process of sheet metal based on bended rolls

To effectively manufacture three-dimensional sheet metal parts with various curvatures produced in small-batch quantity, a continuous roll forming (CRF) process is proposed and investigated. The sheet metal is compressed between pairs of bended rolls and formed into a doubly curved surface. The shapes of forming rolls and the gap between the two rolls are piecewise controlled at a series of points. The two bended rolls and the nonuniformly distributed roll gap between them make the sheet metal bent in longitudinal and transverse directions simultaneously after the sheet metal passes through the roll gap, and a three-dimensional surface is formed continuously with the rotation of forming rolls. The relation between longitudinal elongation distribution and longitudinal bending deformation is discussed, and the lateral spreading in CRF process is analyzed; the method to compute the roll gap and the curved profiles of forming rolls are presented. Forming experiments for torus-shaped surface parts were carried out, and the experiment results demonstrate the feasibility and validity of CRF process and the presented methods.     

A new accurate curvature matching and optimal tool based five-axis machining algorithm

Free-form surfaces are widely used in CAD systems to describe the part surface. Today, the most advanced machining of free from surfaces is done in five-axis machining using a flat end mill cutter. However, five-axis machining requires complex algorithms for gouging avoidance, collision detection and powerful computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) systems to support various operations. An accurate and efficient method is proposed for five-axis CNC machining of free-form surfaces. The proposed algorithm selects the best tool and plans the toolpath autonomously using curvature matching and integrated inverse kinematics of the machine tool. The new algorithm uses the real cutter contact toolpath generated by the inverse kinematics and not the linearized piecewise real cutter location toolpath.     

平板件电磁成形时线圈最小尺寸的计算

成形线圈是平板件电磁成形的一个关键部件。从平板加工线圈的磁感应强度分布入手，分析了平板件上的电磁力分布，确定在成形特定尺寸的工件时，存在一个线圈的最小尺寸，并通过二分法和复合形法分别对圆形线圈和椭圆形线圈的最小尺寸进行了计算。     

Efficient force prediction for incremental sheet forming and experimental validation

Incremental sheet forming (ISF) has been attractive during the last decades because of its greater flexibility, increased formability and reduced forming forces. However, traditional finite element simulation used for force prediction is significantly time consuming. This study aims to provide an efficient analytical model for tangential force prediction. In the present work, forces during the cone-forming process with different wall angles and step-down sizes are recorded experimentally. Different force trends are identified and discussed with reference to different deformation mechanisms. An efficient model is proposed based on the energy method to study the deformation zone in a cone-forming process. The effects of deformation modes from shear, bending and stretching are taken into account separately by two sub-models. The final predicted tangential forces are compared with the experimental results which show an average error of 6 and 11 % in respect to the variation of step-down size and wall angle in the explored limits, respectively. The proposed model would greatly improve the prediction efficiency of forming force and benefit both the design and forming process.