Nanometer edge profile measurement of diamond cutting tools by atomic force microscope with optical alignment sensor

This paper describes an atomic force microscope (AFM) based instrument for nanometer edge profile measurements of diamond cutting tools. The instrument is combined with an AFM unit and an optical sensor for alignment of the AFM probe tip with the top of the diamond cutting tool edge in the submicrometer range. In the optical sensor, a laser beam from a laser diode is focused to generate a small beam spot with a diameter of approximately 10 μm at the beam waist, and then received by a photodiode. The tool edge top and the AFM probe tip are brought to the center of the beam waist, respectively, through monitoring the variation of the photodiode output. To reduce the influence of the electronic noise on the photodiode output so that the positioning resolution can be improved, a modulation technique is employed that modulates the photodiode output to an AC signal by driving the laser diode with a sinusoidal current. Alignment experiments and edge profile measurements are carried out.     

金刚石飞切加工微结构表面的表面粗糙度研究

为了获得具有纳米级表面质量的微结构表面,利用‘Nanosys-300’超精密复合加工系统实现了微结构表面的三维金刚石飞切加工,研究了主轴转速、进给量以及背吃刀量对微结构表面粗糙度的影响。通过对理论表面粗糙度分析可知：金刚石飞切加工微结构时理论表面粗糙度沿法线方向并没有变化,而沿进给方向存在着周期变化。减小进给量f和金刚石飞刀前端角ε或增大切削半径可以降低理论粗糙度值。实验分析结果表明：表面粗糙度值Ra随进给量的增加而增加,主轴转速对Ra影响不大。切削PC时,在5μm-40μm范围内,Ra随背吃刀量的增加而增加;而切削LY12时,在2μm-10μm范围内,Ra随背吃刀量的增加而减小。实验中Ra最好可达38nm（LY12）和43nm（PC）。最后利用优化工艺参数加工出了微沟槽阵列和微金字塔矩阵微结构。     

The optimal diamond wheels for grinding diamond tools

Grinding is the most suitable process for manufacturing good quality diamond tools. In this paper, diamond wheels have been studied. From the grinding of polycrystalline diamond (PCD) insets, the effects of certain factors such as the bonding material, the grit size and structure of a diamond wheel have been investigated. It is concluded that vitrified bond diamond wheels are the most suitable for grinding PCDs and the recommended grit size is mesh number 1000, which can get a good surface quality within an appropriate time. The wheel structure is another important factor. Rougher wheels (mesh #800, #1000) with the softer grade scale P yield a higher material removal rate (MRR) than scale Q. However, a finer wheel (mesh #1200) needs a tougher structure to promote its grinding ability and to have a higher MRR.     

基于原子力显微镜扫描的金刚石刀具纳米刃口轮廓测量方法研究

基于扫描探针理论,本文介绍了一种超精神加工金刚石刀具刃口锋锐轮廓的测量方法,给出了测量图象并分析了测量结果,首次对金刚石刀具刃口轮廓参数进行了ＡＦＭ扫描原理下的初步评定。这一方法可提高金刚石刀具刃口锋锐度的测量准确度,对进一步分析刃口参数如何影响超精密加工表面质量具有指导意义。     

基于原子力显微镜(AFM)的微加工系统

目前原子力显微镜(AFM)已经成为纳米加工领域中一种重要的加工手段,但由于其自身扫描陶管及针尖等因素的影响,AFM的微加工能力在很大程度上受到限制。利用三维微动工作台结合原子力显微镜以及锋利的金刚石针尖组成微加工系统,通过编程获取微结构的轮廓,选择RS-232串口作为通讯方式,发送字符串命令控制工作台的运动实现预定的轨迹,从而消除了扫描陶管运动范围有限且存在漂移和滞后的影响,解决了氮化硅和单晶硅针尖加工材料范围有限的问题,提升了AFM的加工能力,并加工出较为复杂的微结构及微传感器。实验表明这是一种可行的微加工方法。     

Focused ion beam-shaped microtools for ultra-precision machining of cylindrical components

Focused ion beam (FIB) sputtering is used to shape a variety of cutting tools with dimensions in the 15–100 μm range and cutting edge radii of curvature of 40 nm. The shape of each microtool is controlled to a pre-specified geometry that includes rake and relief features. We demonstrate tools having rectangular, triangular, and other complex-shaped face designs. A double-triangle tip on one tool is unique and demonstrates the versatility of the fabrication process. The FIB technique allows observation of the tool during fabrication, and, thus, reproducible features are generated with sub-micron precision. Tools are made from tungsten carbide, high-speed tool steel, and single crystal diamond. Application of FIB-shaped tools in ultra-precision microgrooving tests shows that the cross-section of a machined groove is an excellent replication of the microtool face. Microgrooves on 40–150 μm pitch are cut into 3 mm diameter polymer rods, for groove arc lengths greater than 12 cm. The surface finish of machined features is also reported; groove roughness (R_a) is typically less than 0.2 μm. Ultra-precision machining of cylindrical substrates is extended to make bound metal microcoils having feature sizes of 20–40 μm.     

High accurate squareness measurement squareness method for ultra-precision machine based on error separation

Traditional measurement methods of squareness for ultra-precision motion stage have many limitations, especially the errors caused by the inaccuracy of standard specimens. On the basis of error separation, this paper presents a novel method to measure squareness with an optical square brick. The angles between the guideways and the four lines of brick section are measured based on the fact that sum of interior angle of a quadrilateral is 2π, and the squareness is obtained. A squareness measurement experiment was performed on a profilometer with a modified optical square brick. Experimental results show that the squareness accuracy between X and Y axes is not influenced by the accuracy of brick, and the measurement repeatability reaches 0.22 arcsec. Finally, a verification experiment to the proposed method was carried out with a high accurate standard specimen, and the error between the two methods is 1.06 arcsec. According to the error results and simulation analysis of the measurement system, the measurement error based on error separation is 0.06 arcsec. The proposed method is able to achieve a very high accurate squareness measurement with auxiliary components of normal accuracy, and can be applied to measure the accuracy class of sub-arcsec squareness.     

金刚石刀具精密切削钛合金薄壁件试验研究

为满足航空发动机的减重、提高零部件的加工质量和对性能的要求,采用试验的方法,对航空用钛合金薄壁件进行精密切削加工研究,主要以表面加工质量为研究对象,并以其为约束,以提高效率为目的对切削参数进行优化,得到了较为可行的加工参数,并对表面粗糙度的变化规律进行分析研究,同时分析了金刚石刀具在精密切削钛合金薄壁件加工中,刀具磨损初期、中期和后期的磨损形式和成因,研究为实际型号钛合金薄壁零件的加工提供了一种改进加工工艺技术的方法。     

An integrated error compensation method based on on-machine measurement for thin web parts machining

Thin webs are widely used in the aerospace industry for the advantages of compact structure, light weight and high strength-to-weight ratio. Due to its low rigidity, serious machining error may occur, therefore, Finite Element method and mechanism analysis are usually utilized to modeling its deformation. However, they are very time-consuming and only suitable for elastic deformation error. In this study, an integrated error compensation method is proposed based on on-machine measurement (OMM) inspection and error compensation. The OMM inspection is firstly applied to measure the comprehensive machining errors. The Hampel filtering is then used to eliminate outliers, followed by the triangulation-based cubic interpolation as well as a machine learning algorithm which are used to establish the compensation model. At last, the real time compensation of high-density cutting points is realized by developing the compensation system based on External Machine Zero Point Shift (EMZPS) function of machine tool. Three sets of machining experiment of a typical thin web part are conducted to validate the feasibility and efficiency of the proposed method. Experiment results revealed that after compensation, the comprehensive machining errors were controlled under different machining conditions and 58.1%, 68.4% and 62.6% of the machining error ranges were decreased, respectively. This method demonstrates immense potential for further applications in efficiency and accuracy improvement of thin-walled surface parts.     

An edge reversal method for precision measurement of cutting edge radius of single point diamond tools

A method, which is referred to as the edge reversal method, is proposed for precision measurement of the cutting edge radius of single point diamond tools. An indentation mark of the cutting edge which replicates the cutting edge geometry is firstly made on a soft metal substrate surface. The cutting edge of the diamond tool and its indentation mark, which is regarded as the reversal cutting edge, are then measured by utilizing an atomic force microscopy (AFM), respectively. The cutting edge radius can be accurately evaluated through removing the influence of the AFM probe tip radius, which is comparable to the cutting edge radius, based on the two measured data without characterization of the AFM probe tip radius. The results of measurement experiments and uncertainty analysis are presented to demonstrate the feasibility of the proposed method.     

Modeling and machining evaluation of microstructure fabrication by fast tool servo-based diamond machining

A fast-tool servo-machining process is typically utilized to generate sinusoidal microstructures for optical components only when the clearance angle of the cutting tool is greater than the critical value. This paper focuses on the generation characteristics of microstructures for surface texturing applications when the clearance angle of the cutting tool is smaller than this critical angle. A method for calculating the microstructure profile amplitude and wavelength is introduced for the prediction of microstructure generation. Cutting tests were conducted, and the measured results were quite close to the corresponding calculated results, further verifying the capability of the proposed analytical model.     

Theoretical and experimental analysis of the effect of error motions on surface generation in fast tool servo machining

The fast tool servo (FTS) machining process provides an indispensable solution for machining optical microstructures with sub-micrometer form accuracy and a nanometric surface finish without the need for any subsequent post processing. The error motions in the FTS machining play an important role in the material removal process and surface generation. However, these issues have received relatively little attention. This paper presents a theoretical and experimental analysis of the effect of error motions on surface generation in FTS machining. This is accomplished by the establishment of a model-based simulation system for FTS machining, which is composed of a surface generation model, a tool path generator, and an error model. The major components of the error model include the stroke error of the FTS, the error motion of the machine slide in the feed direction, and the axial motion error of the main spindle. The form error due to the stroke error can be extracted empirically by regional analysis, the slide motion error and the axial motion error of the spindle are obtained by a kinematic model and the analysis of the profile in the circumferential direction in single point diamond turning (SPDT) of a flat surface, respectively. After incorporating the error model in the surface generation model, the model-based simulation system is capable of predicting the surface generation in FTS machining. A series of cutting tests were conducted. The predicted results were compared with the measured results, and hence the performance of the model-based simulation system was verified. The proposed research is helpful for the analysis and diagnosis of motion errors on the surface generation in the FTS machining process, and throws some light on the corresponding compensation and optimization solutions to improve the machining quality.     

An empirical survey on the influence of machining parameters on tool wear in diamond turning of large single-crystal silicon optics

We conducted a series of screening experiments to survey the influence of machining parameters on tool wear during ductile regime diamond turning of large single-crystal silicon optics. The machining parameters under investigation were depth-of-cut, feed rate, surface cutting speed, tool radius, tool rake angle and side rake angle, and cutting fluid. Using an experimental design technique, we selected twenty-two screening experiments. For each experiment we measured tool wear by tracing the tool edge with an air bearing linear variable differential transformer before and after cutting and recording the amount of tool edge recession. Using statistical tools, we determined the significance of each cutting parameter within the parameter space investigated. We found that track length, chip size, tool rake angle and surface cutting speed significantly affect tool wear, while cutting fluid and side rake angle do not significantly affect tool wear within the ranges tested. The track length, or machining distance, is the single most influential characteristic that causes tool wear. For a fixed part area, a decrease in track length corresponds to an increase in feed rate. Less tool wear occurred on experiments with negative rake angle tools, larger chip sizes and higher surface velocities. The next step in this research is to perform more experiments in this region to develop a predictive model that can be used to select cutting parameters that minimize tool wear.     

辊筒模具微透镜阵列的慢刀伺服成形加工

目的：为实现辊筒模具表面微透镜阵列高效率、高精度加工,本文对微透镜阵列成形法加工轨迹的拟合方法和机床伺服参数的优化方法进行了理论与实验研究。首先,分析了微透镜阵列的原始轨迹特征,确定了过渡台阶的突变是微透镜表面振纹的主要诱因。其次,为保证加工轨迹二阶导数的连续性,本文提出了三次样条插值与傅里叶级数拟合拼接的方法优化加工轨迹。最后,在优化加工轨迹的基础上,通过调整伺服系统的前馈参数,提高了进给轴响应能力,减小了因驱动质量和阻尼效应而产生的跟踪误差。口径800μm、深度26.7μm的微透镜阵列加工实验表明,采用优化的刀具轨迹和伺服参数,机床加工效率可以达到8Hz,进给轴跟踪误差小于300nm,消除了微透镜阵列的表面振纹。微透镜单元口径的尺寸误差约为设计值的1.075%,随机检测结果表明口径尺寸变化范围为2μm,加工一致性良好。三次样条插值与傅里叶级数拟合优化的加工轨迹可有效抑制进给轴的振动,改善了微透镜阵列表面质量。     

An AFM scanning moiré technique for the inspection of surface deformations

An atomic force microscope (AFM) scanning moiré technique has been developed and verified in preparation for the measurement of deformations of single point diamond-turned surfaces. It is a non-destructive measurement method without introducing external reference and specimen gratings. This technique has also been successfully applied to measure thermal deformations of electronics packages without introducing an external reference grating. The principle of the formation of an AFM scanning moiré and strain measurement using this technique is explained in detail. Several important issues in its applications such as the measuring errors, scanning directions and selection of the number of scan lines are also discussed.     

Phase shifts and energy dissipations of several modes of AFM: Minimizing topography and dissipation measurement errors

For clear interpretation of a sample's surface properties, several simple and general relations between phase shifts of atomic force microscopy (AFM) and sample's properties are derived. The topography and dissipation measurement errors due to some inherent uncertainties are investigated. For derivation of these simple and general relations among measuring signals and sample's properties, the dynamic behavior of a cantilever is simulated into a mass-spring-damper model. In general, the conventional model can determine the first mode only. The dynamic effective spring theory is introduced here. Based on this theory, the conventional model can be modified to accurately determine the dynamic motions of higher modes of a cantilever. If the dynamic behavior is almost harmonic, the exact dynamic response of the general system subjected to arbitrary tip–sample force is derived. Moreover, several simple and general relations among dynamic responses of AFM and sample's properties are discovered. Based on these relations, the errors of measuring a sample's surface properties due to the inherent measuring uncertainties are investigated. Finally, some methods to minimize the error of measurement are proposed.     

The effect of cutting parameters and cutting tools on machining performance of carbon graphite material

Abstract

The present study focuses on the effects of cutting speed, feed rate and cutting tool material on the machining performance of carbon graphite material. Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) cutting tools are used in machining experiments and its performance is compared with the tungsten carbide (WC) and Cubic Boron Nitride (CBN) tools. Machining performance criteria such as flank and nose wear and resulting surface topography and roughness of machined parts were studied. This study illustrates that feed rate and cutting tool material play a dominant role in the progressive wear of the cutting tool. The highest feed rate and cutting speed profoundly reduce the tool wear progression. The surface roughness and topography of specimens are remarkably influenced from the tool wear. Major differences are found in the wear mechanisms of PCD and WC and CBN cutting tools.     

Wear of monocrystalline diamond tools during ultraprecision machining of nonferrous metals

In studying the wear behavior of diamond cutting tools, a pragmatic appraoch has been chosen in which the tool wear and the change in cutting forces have been specifically determined as a function of tool life. Several nonferrous metals, such as copper, aluminium, and electroless nickel, have been machined. The influence of microstructural characteristics, crystallographic orientation, and mechanical surface state of diamonds on tool-wear behavior is investigated in considerable detail. It has been found that wear behavior of diamond tools depends strongly on workpiece material, so that when machining aluminium, all types of diamond show considerable and almost the same degree of wear. However, machining copper and electroless nickel entails much subtler wear characteristics; in fact, great differences in wear resistance between different types of diamonds were discerned. Type all diamonds in particular, both synthetic and natural, appear to be highly resistant to wear. The best crystallographic orientation for wear-resistant diamonds depends on the way the cutting tools are used.     

Development of coating method of titanium carbide and titanium carbonitride on diamond

Fracture and drop-off of diamond grains are thought to be suppressed if the diamond grains used, such as those for electroplated wires, are coated with a material having a higher coefficient of thermal expansion than diamond and having good adhesion to the binder metal. In this study, we selected titanium carbide and titanium carbonitride as materials with such characteristics, and investigated their coating methods. The titanium carbide coating was formed by heating a mixture of diamond plate or diamond grains and titanium powder in vacuum at a temperature lower than the melting point of titanium. Titanium carbonitride formation tests were performed in two ways: by forming a titanium carbide coating and titanium carbonitride in the same chamber continuously or by exposing the sample to the atmosphere after titanium carbide formation and subsequently reheating it in nitrogen. The titanium carbide coating was tested by heating the mixture of the diamond plate and the titanium grains in vacuum of 2.0 × 10⁻³ Pa or less at 1073–1273 K for 60–120 min. For the titanium carbonitride coating, the primary titanium carbide coating was applied at temperatures of 1123–1273 K for 60 min. Then the titanium carbonitride formation was done at the same temperature but with different heating times. Products on the diamond after heating tests were analyzed using X-ray diffraction. Results show that titanium carbide can be coated onto the diamond surface by heating the mixture of diamond and titanium powder in vacuum at 1073 K or at a higher temperature. Results demonstrated further that titanium carbonitride can be formed by heating the diamond plate or the diamond grains coated with titanium carbide in nitrogen at a temperature higher than 1123 K. The titanium carbide layer thickness and the ratio of nitrogen in the titanium carbonitride increased concomitantly with increased heating temperature and increased heating time.