The COP of absorption and resorption heat pumps with ammonia-water as working fluidLe coefficient de performance des pompes de chaleur à absorption et à résorption avec de l'eau-ammoniac comme fluide de travail

A study has been made of the use of an absorption heat pump for the heating of buildings. With the aid of a computerized parameter study, one can evaluate the COP that can be achieved with single-stage absorption heat pumps as a function of external parameters and the irreversibilities in the components of the heat pump. An NH₃H₂O mixture was used. The condenser was replaced by a resorber in order to avoid the excessive pressure in the former. The COP is thus evaluated for this resorption cycle as a function of the resorption pressure. The absorber pressure and the temperature of the weak solution leaving the generator were optimized in order to achieve a better COP.     

The COP of absorption and resorption heat pumps with ammonia-water as working fluid

A study has been made of the use of an absorption heat pump for the heating of buildings. With the aid of a computerized parameter study, one can evaluate the COP that can be achieved with single-stage absorption heat pumps as a function of external parameters and the irreversibilities in the components of the heat pump. An NH₃---H₂O mixture was used. The condenser was replaced by a resorber in order to avoid the excessive pressure in the former. The COP is thus evaluated for this resorption cycle as a function of the resorption pressure. The absorber pressure and the temperature of the weak solution leaving the generator were optimized in order to achieve a better COP.     

Amélioration de la performance des machines frigorifiques á absorption par l'utilisation de cycles à absorption et désorption étagés

This study deals with staged absorption and desorption cooling systems which increase the performance of absorption cycles that are driven by only low-grade energy, particularly when the working fluids are NH₃H₂0. Instead of working with only one absorber, these systems use a cascade of absorbers composed by one operating at the evaporator pressure, followed by a series of absorbers operating at staged pressures P_j, between P_ev and P_c In the same way, a cascade of generators is used for desorption. For the same operating parameters for other equipment and the same COP, the systems that we propose permit the generators to run at temperatures below those of all other systems offered up to now and using the same working fluids. When T_ev = −10°C, T_a = T_c = 30°C, the temperature of the generators can be as low as 65°C while the COP of the system is 0.258 and the COP_ex 0.317. By increasing the temperature of generators to 85°C while maintaining the other parameters at the same values, COP becomes 0.374 and the COP,, 0.336. These results improve the performance of absorption systems using only low-grade energy (T < 100°C). Particularly, they are better than the performance of two-stage absorption systems which consist of two single-stage absorption cycles coupled with each other through the evaporator of the first cycle and the absorber of the second cycle. With the same operating parameters indicated above for our system at the evaporator, the condenser, and the absorber, these coupled cycles need temperatures at generators of 80 and 100°C, whereas they give a COP of only 0.270     

Amélioration de la performance des machines frigorifiques á absorption par l'utilisation de cycles à absorption et désorption étagésPerformance improvement of absorption cooling systems by using staged absorption and desorption cycles

This study deals with staged absorption and desorption cooling systems which increase the performance of absorption cycles that are driven by only low-grade energy, particularly when the working fluids are NH₃---H₂0. Instead of working with only one absorber, these systems use a cascade of absorbers composed by one operating at the evaporator pressure, followed by a series of absorbers operating at staged pressures P_j, between P_ev and P_c In the same way, a cascade of generators is used for desorption. For the same operating parameters for other equipment and the same COP, the systems that we propose permit the generators to run at temperatures below those of all other systems offered up to now and using the same working fluids. When T_ev = −10°C, T_a = T_c = 30°C, the temperature of the generators can be as low as 65°C while the COP of the system is 0.258 and the COP_ex 0.317. By increasing the temperature of generators to 85°C while maintaining the other parameters at the same values, COP becomes 0.374 and the COP,, 0.336. These results improve the performance of absorption systems using only low-grade energy (T < 100°C). Particularly, they are better than the performance of two-stage absorption systems which consist of two single-stage absorption cycles coupled with each other through the evaporator of the first cycle and the absorber of the second cycle. With the same operating parameters indicated above for our system at the evaporator, the condenser, and the absorber, these coupled cycles need temperatures at generators of 80 and 100°C, whereas they give a COP of only 0.270     

Control optimisation of CO2 cycles for medium temperature retail food refrigeration systems

This paper describes a detailed procedure into the investigation of optimised control strategies for CO₂ cycles in medium temperature retail food refrigeration systems. To achieve this objective, an integrated model was developed composing of a detailed condenser/gas cooler model, a simplified compressor model, an isenthalpic expansion process and constant evaporating temperature and superheating. The CO₂ system can operate subcritically or transcritically depending on the ambient temperature. For a transcritical operation, a prediction can be made for optimised refrigerant discharge pressures from thermodynamic cycle calculations. When the system operates in the subcritical cycle, a floating discharge pressure control strategy is employed and the effect of different transitional ambient temperatures separating subcritical and transcritical cycles on system performance is investigated. The control strategy assumes variable compressor speed and adjustable air flow for the gas cooler/condenser to be modulated to achieve the constant cooling load requirement at different ambient conditions.     

Evaluation of a novel combined ejector-absorption refrigeration cycle — I: computer simulation

This paper describes a novel refrigeration cycle based on the combination of an absorption cycle with an ejector refrigeration cycle. The combination brings together the advantages of absorption and ejector refrigeration systems and provides high COP for refrigeration and air-conditioning. The combined cycle is particularly suitable for utilising waste thermal energy. A computer simulation program was developed for the combined cycle and used to determine the performance of the system using LiBrH₂O for various generator, condenser and evaporator temperatures. Optimum operating conditions and ejector design data are also provided.     

A new thermoeconomic approach and parametric study of an irreversible regenerative Brayton refrigeration cycle

The detailed parametric study of an irreversible regenerative Brayton refrigerator cycle using the new thermoeconomic approach is presented in this paper. The external irreversibility is due to finite temperature difference between the cycle and the external reservoirs while the internal irreversibilities are due to the nonisentropic compression and expansion processes and the regenerative loss. The thermoeconomic objective function defined as the cooling load per unit cost is optimized with respect to the state point temperatures for a typical set of operating conditions. The power input and cooling load are found to be decreasing functions of the expansion outlet temperature (T₁), while it is the reverse in the case of COP. On the other hand, there are optimal values of the temperature T₁, cooling load, power input and COP at which the cycle attains the maximum objective function for a typical set of operating parameters. Again, the objective function, COP and cooling load further enhance, while the power input goes down, as the various values of the effectiveness or efficiency components are increased.     

Performance of double effect absorption compression cycles for air-conditioning using methanol–TEGDME and TFE–TEGDME systems as working pairs: Performances de cycles à compression absorption à double effet pour le conditionnement d'air utilisant les couples méthanol–TEGDME ou TFE–TEGDME

The organic working pairs trifluoroethanol (TFE)–tetraethyleneglycol dimethyether (TEGDME or E181) and methanol–TEGDME have some advantages over classical water–LiBr and ammonia water working pairs in absorption cycles. One of the most important features is the wide working range caused by the absence of crystallization, the low freezing temperatures of the refrigerants and the thermal stability of the mixtures at high temperatures.The performance of a double effect absorption cycle for these organic mixtures can be improved if a compression stage is introduced between the evaporator and the absorber. The coefficient of performance (COP) and primary energy ratio (PER) values in the cooling mode are significantly increased over a wide working range: the cycle can work with temperature lifts of 50ºC at 5ºC in the evaporator or it can also be powered by low grade heat. For these conditions COP and PER values are higher than 1.0 and 0.7 respectively, and the power supplied to the compressor represents up to 15% of the thermal energy supplied to the generator. As it is possible to work at high temperatures lifts, the absorber and condenser can be air cooled.     

Performance improvement of a transcritical CO2 refrigeration cycle using two-stage thermoelectric modules in sub-cooler and gas cooler

A novel integration of a trans-critical CO₂ refrigeration cycle with thermoelectric modules in the gas cooler and sub-cooler is presented, wherein a two-stage thermoelectric generator (TEG) produces power from the waste heat of gas cooler, which is a considerable amount of required power in two-stage thermoelectric cooler (TEC) to sub-cool the refrigerant before expansion device. Mathematical simulation of TEG and TEC as well as energy and exergy based thermodynamic analysis of the proposed system is performed, and the effects of some important parameters on the system performance are investigated. A comparison is carried out between the proposed system and the simple CO₂ refrigeration cycle, indicating that the proposed configuration improves the coefficient of performance (COP) about 19%. Also, it is observed that the TEC and TEG have better performance in a two-stage configuration. The parametric study reveals that the new configuration decreases the cycle operation pressure at maximum COP and exergetic efficiency.     

Experimental evaluation of a CO2 transcritical refrigeration plant with dedicated mechanical subcooling

CO₂ transcritical refrigeration cycles require optimization to reach the performance of conventional solutions at high ambient temperatures. Theoretical studies demonstrated that the combination of a transcritical cycle with a mechanical subcooling cycle improves its performance; however, any experimentation with CO₂ has been found. This work presents the energy improvements of the use of a mechanical subcooling cycle in combination with a CO₂ transcritical refrigeration plant, experimentally. It tested the combination of a R1234yf single-stage refrigeration cycle with a semihermetic compressor for the mechanical subcooling cycle, with a single-stage CO₂ transcritical refrigeration plant with a semihermetic compressor. The combination is evaluated at two evaporating levels of the CO₂ cycle (0 and −10 °C) and three heat rejection temperatures (24, 30 and 40 °C). The optimum operating conditions and capacity and COP improvements are analysed with maximum increments on capacity of 55.7% and 30.3% on COP.     

Potential performance of real gas Stirling cycle heat pumps

Heat pumps based on the reversed Stirling cycle are shown to be positively influenced by real gas effects, provided they are designed to operate in a proper region of the fluid state diagram. A simplified model of a Stirling heat pump, aimed at understanding the basic cycle thermodynamics is presented, which allows a first optimization of real gas cycles. Provided the expansion process takes place in a proper narrow region close to the critical point, efficiencies much higher than those achievable with an ideal gas and similar to those of vaporization-compression cycles are obtained. A number of zero ODP, safe fluids are considered (Xe, CHF₃, C₂F₆, CHF₃ + CF₄ mixtures) allowing optimum operation in a wide range of heat source and heat production temperatures. Only mixtures, however, are recognized to permit a fine adjustment of the fluid properties to the heat source characteristics and to the user's temperature requirements. In order to reach good energy performance, high-pressure operation (around 200 bar) and an efficient internal regeneration of heat are needed. Graphs are supplied that reveal the heat pump cycle performance for each fluid at a wide range of temperatures, pressures and cycle compression volume ratios. Loss analysis shows that fluids having a simple molecule yield the best efficiency and the minimum amount of heat regeneration. Stirling power cycles are also shown to benefit from real gas effects, with the result that at top temperatures around 400–450°C, which are probably acceptable for a number of organic fluids, a fuel to work conversion efficiency around 25–30% seems possible for a cogenerative prime mover. The performance of such motors, intended for heat pump drives, are given for C₂HF₅ and C₃F₈ fluids. Very high pressures are required to optimize the cycle performance. Preliminary information on the prospective characteristics of a fuel powered Stirling-Stirling low-grade heat generator is given.     

General analysis of magnetic refrigeration and its optimization using a new concept: maximization of refrigerant capacity

A general approach to the problem of refrigeration optimization is presented based on the concept that the most appropriate and meaningful measure of the level of refrigeration is the product of entropy absorbed by the refrigerant at the cycle cold temperature, ΔS_c, and the temperature span, ΔT, over which it is pumped. Results are presented of mean-field calculations of ΔS_cΔT, the refrigerant capacity, for ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, and antiferromagnetic refrigerants as a function of the various operating parameters and those values that lead to maximization of refrigerant capacity are shown. Good agreement is found with values of ΔS_cΔT obtained from experimentally determined magnetic entropies. Several prototype magnetic refrigerators have been analysed using this approach and alternatives are suggested. In addition it is proposed that useful measures of the performance of a refrigerant-cycle combination are given by two ratios. These ratios are of refrigerant capacity to the energy in the applied magnetic field over the volume of the refrigerant and of refrigerant capacity to the positive work done on the refrigerant in one cycle. For T < ≈ 20 K, maximum values of these ratios for optimized ferromagnetic refrigerant cycles typically occur for applied magnetic fields of < 1 T. This is achievable using permanent, rather than superconducting, magnets. It is concluded that two of the greatest needs for further development of low temperature magnetic refrigeration are finding and characterizing ferromagnetic refrigerants with appropriate Curie temperatures (compounds containing Eu²⁺ appear promising), and the analysis and development of regenerative magnetic cycles using He gas as a heat transfer medium that take full advantage of optimized ferromagnetic refrigerant cycles in fields < 1 T.     

Optimization of generator temperatures in two-stage dual-fluid absorption cycles operated by biogas

Generator temperatures in ammonia absorption systems at subfreezing evaporator conditions have been optimized to use the minimum volume of biogas required to operate two-stage dual-fluid cycles. In this dual-fluid cycle, a LiBr---H₂O absorption system is used at the first stage with ammonia absorption systems at the second stage. Three different refrigerant-absorbent combinations (NH₃---H₂O, NH₃---NaSCN, NH₃---LiNO₃) were selected for this study. The absorber at the second stage is cooled by the low temperature water-refrigerant from the evaporator at the first stage. Lowering the absorber temperature reduces the heat input to the generator, which lowers the generating temperature and improves the performance of the absorption systems at the second stage. The optimum generator temperatures and performance coefficients of the systems at the first and second stages and the overall two-stage dual-fluid cycles are presented graphically. A comparative study between the three ammonia systems used in the two-stage dual-fluid cycle has been carried out.     

Effects of vapor injection techniques on the heating performance of a CO2 heat pump at low ambient temperatures

The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of vapor injection techniques on the heating performance of a CO₂ heat pump. The performances of the flash tank vapor injection (FTVI), sub-cooler vapor injection (SCVI) and FTVI with a suction line heat exchanger (FTSX) cycles were measured and analyzed with variations of the outdoor temperature, compressor frequency, and injection mass flow rate. At the outdoor temperature of −15 °C and compressor frequency of 55 Hz, the heating capacity and COP of the optimized SCVI cycle were 12.1% and 12.7% higher than those of the optimized FTVI cycle, respectively, because the total mass flow rate in the SCVI cycle was higher than that in the FTVI cycle by the large temperature and pressure differences in the sub-cooler of the SCVI cycle. In addition, the optimum injection flow rate ratios in the vapor injection CO₂ cycles yielding the maximum COP were determined at various compressor frequencies.     

Comparitive analysis of an automotive air conditioning systems operating with CO2 and R134a

This paper evaluates performance merits of CO₂ and R134a automotive air conditioning systems using semi-theoretical cycle models. The R134a system had a current-production configuration, which consisted of a compressor, condenser, expansion device, and evaporator. The CO₂ system was additionally equipped with a liquid-line/suction-line heat exchanger. Using these two systems, an effort was made to derive an equitable comparison of performance; the components in both systems were equivalent and differences in thermodynamic and transport properties were accounted for in the simulations. The analysis showed R134a having a better COP than CO₂ with the COP disparity being dependent on compressor speed (system capacity) and ambient temperature. For a compressor speed of 1000 RPM, the COP of CO₂ was lower by 21% at 32.2°C and by 34% at 48.9°C. At higher speeds and ambient temperatures, the COP disparity was even greater. The entropy generation calculations indicated that the large entropy generation in the gas cooler was the primary cause for the lower performance of CO₂.     

Thermodynamic analysis and optimization of a novel two-stage transcritical N2O cycle

Thermodynamic (energy and exergy) analyses and optimization studies of two-stage transcritical N₂O and CO₂ cycles, incorporating compressor intercooling, are presented based on cycle simulation employing simultaneous optimization of intercooler pressure and gas cooler pressure. Further, performance comparisons with the basic single-stage cycles are also presented. The N₂O cycle exhibits higher cooling COP, lower optimum gas cooler pressure and discharge temperature and higher second law efficiency as compared to an equivalent CO₂ cycle. However, two-stage compression with intercooling yields lesser COP improvement for N₂O compared to CO₂. Based on the cycle simulations, correlations of optimum gas cooler pressure and inter-stage pressure in terms of gas cooler exit temperature and evaporator temperature are obtained. This is expected to be of help as a guideline in optimal design and operation of such systems.     

Comparison of total energy systems using gas turbines and diesel engines for combined cooling

A gas turbine engine was used to drive the compressor of a vapour compression cycle so that the usually wasted energy in the exhaust gases was partially recovered and used in the generator of an absorption cycle. The cooling effect was therefore boosted. The degree of energy utilization was further enhanced when the energy released from the absorber and condenser of both cycles was recovered in the form of hot water, which could be used for different applications. The performance parameters for this combined system, such as the cooling effect, total heat recovered and performance effectiveness ratio, were calculated for various evaporator and condenser temperatures. It was found that a system driven by a gas turbine gives a better performance than a diesel engine system under similar operating conditions.     

A study of working fluids for heat driven ejector refrigeration using lumped parameter models

This paper studies the influence of working fluids over the performance of heat driven ejector refrigeration systems performance by using a lumped parameter model. The model used has been selected after a comparison of different models with a set of experimental data available in the literature. The effect of generator, evaporator and condenser temperature over the entrainment ratio and the COP has been investigated for different working fluids in the typical operating conditions of low grade energy sources. The results show a growth in performance (the entrainment ratio and the COP) with a rise in the generator and evaporator temperature and a decrease in the condenser temperature. The working fluids have a great impact on the ejector performance and each refrigerant has its own range of operating conditions. R134a is found to be suitable for low generator temperature (70–100 °C), whereas the hydrocarbons R600 is suitable for medium generator temperatures (100–130 °C) and R601 for high generator temperatures (130–180 °C).     

Numerical optimisation of a two-stage ejector refrigeration plant

Jet-refrigeration cycles seem to provide an interesting solution to the increasing interest in environment protection and the need for energy saving due to their low plant costs, reliability and possibility to use water as operating fluid. A steam/steam ejector cycle refrigerator is investigated introducing a two-stage ejector with annular primary at the second stage. The steady_state refrigerator, exchanging heat with the water streams at inlet fixed temperatures at the three shell and tube heat exchangers, evaporator, condenser and generator, is considered as an open system. Heat transfer irreversibilities in the heat exchangers and external friction losses in the water streams are considered, ignoring the internal pressure drop of the vapor. A simulation program numerically searches the maximum COP at given external inlet fluid temperatures as a function of mass flows, dimensions and temperature differences in the heat exchangers. The code gives the ejector and heat exchangers design parameters.