Calculation of residual stresses in case-hardened SAE5115 steel cylinders

The development of stresses for five differently case-hardened SAE5115 steel cylinders with variable surface carbon mass contents c_S and carburization depths CD during single hardening are calculated. The carbon profiles and the retained austenite distributions in the near-surface material areas are approximated in a stepwise manner. Exemplarily, in the middle plane of cylinders with c_S = 0.5 % C (CD = 0.07 mm) and 1.1 % C (CD = 0.2 mm), the local axial stresses at the surface, at four near-surface points and in the core are described during the hardening process up to temperature balance. The influence of c_S and CD on the surface tangential residual stress values along the casing of the cylinders is outlined. Also the depths distributions of the tangential residual stresses in the middle plane are presented for differently carburized cylinders. At c_S = 1.1 % C = const. the distance of maximum compressive residual stresses beneath the surface as well as the thickness of the compressed surface and the distances with the largest tensile residual stresses increase with increasing CD.     

Influence of heat transfer on the development of residual stresses in quenched steel cylinders

In this paper results of systematic FE-calculations about the influence of characteristic points of the temperature dependent heat transfer coefficient, especially the Leidenfrost point and the point of maximum heat transfer coefficient on the development of residual stresses are discussed. The numerical investigations were carried out for SAE 1045 and 4140 steel cylinders with 10 and 20 mm 0 quenched in water and oil, respectively. In this work experimentally determined h, T-curves are linearly approximated in the successive stages of heat transfer. Changes of the Leidenfrost-temperature do not influence the middle plane residual stresses of the cylinders investigated. Increasing maximum heat transfer coefficients and low temperatures of maximum heat transfer coefficient, respectively, cause higher magnitudes of residual stress. The development of residual stresses is determined by the temperature dependent gradient of the heat flux density δq/δT in the temperature range of martensitic transformation. Increasing Leidenfrost-temperatures cause more homogeneous stress and residual stress states at the surface of quenched cylinders due to the symmetrical cooling of the sample in axial as well as in radial direction. In particular, it was shown that during immersion cooling of cylindrical parts the heat transfer is locally dependent. Simulating immersion cooling this dependence has to be considered using effective local heat transfer coefficients.     

Research on martensitic transformation of 304 stainless steel

采用光学显微镜、扫描电镜、磁性测量和力学分析等手段,研究了304奥氏体不锈钢形变过程中发生开裂的原因,研究发现开裂是由于形变过程中发生了马氏体相变,导致塑性变差引起的,开裂处的磁性率达到了22.9%。发生马氏体转变的原因是由于w（Ni）低于标准下限,其组织稳定性下降,在形变过程中诱发了马氏体转变。     

304不锈钢马氏体组织转变探讨

采用光学显微镜、扫描电镜、磁性测量和力学分析等手段,研究了304奥氏体不锈钢形变过程中发生开裂的原因,研究发现开裂是由于形变过程中发生了马氏体相变,导致塑性变差引起的,开裂处的磁性率达到了22.9%。发生马氏体转变的原因是由于w（Ni）低于标准下限,其组织稳定性下降,在形变过程中诱发了马氏体转变。     

高硅马氏体型热作模具钢回火转变的内耗研究

研究了含硅量为1.5%(质量分数)的高硅马氏体型热作模具钢(SDH3)的内耗谱与显微结构之间的关系.实验用SDH3钢采用1060℃保温30min油冷淬火和不同回火工艺处理.试样的温度-内耗谱(TDIF)的测量在振动仪上进行,采用自由衰减法,测量温度区间为室温至750℃.实验结果表明:SDH3钢的TDIF谱线主要是Snoek峰和SKK峰这两种机制的内耗峰;随着回火温度的升高,内耗峰峰高均逐渐降低,并且峰位也发生改变;当回火温度达到650℃时,内耗峰完全消失而只剩下背景内耗;随着回火保温时间的延长,内耗峰峰高和峰位都发生变化,并从扩散控制再分配机理的角度对这些变化进行了分析讨论.     

Effect of temperature and strain distribution on martensitic transformation during uniaxial testing of AISI-304 stainless steel

A coupled finite element method has been used to determine the true plastic strain, effective strain, and temperature distribution inside the tensile specimen of AISI-304 austenitic stainless steel during uniaxial testing at low and high strain rates. The volume fraction of martensite has been computed along the gage length by employing Olson-Cohen analysis and using the value of a and β parameters from Heckers curve at the temperatures which were obtained by FEM analysis in different elements of the specimen. The results reveal that due to nonhomogeneous distribution of plastic strain and variation in temperature along the gage length, the volume fraction of martensite would be different near the end of gage length and the center of the specimen.     

Densifying and hardening of martensitic steel powders in HIP units providing high cooling rates

Hot isostatic pressing (HIP) units are worldwide used for the compaction of metal alloy powders. The cooling rate in a HIP unit is usually comparatively low. This lengthens cycle times and requires an additionally heat treatment for quenched and tempered steels. Novel cooling HIP concepts in HIP units feature high quenching rates. In this study, tool steels were investigated with respect to their time–temperature–transformation behaviour for different cooling parameters. The paper shows that encapsuled powdered tool steels can be compacted and hardened in the HIP unit. The examined steels exhibit a comparable or even a higher hardness and a finer microstructure. HIP units with high-quenching rates enable to compact and heat treat materials in one step.     

卷取温度对热轧X70管线钢层流冷却过程残余应力的影响

通过热膨胀仪和Gleeble3500热模拟试验机检测X70钢的膨胀系数、高温屈服强度和弹性模量,采用Marc有限元软件计算了热轧带钢在层流冷却中卷取温度分别为500、550和600℃时的温度场、相变体积分数、残余应力随时间的变化.结果表明:层流冷却过程中,在水冷前期带钢边部的应力超过了该温度下钢板的屈服强度,带钢板形会向着边浪发展;水冷结束时,边部应力值再次超过屈服强度并发生了塑性变形,带钢板形会向着中浪发展.在保证X70管线钢性能的条件下,降低卷取温度有利于钢板贝氏体相变的完成和层流冷却阶段残余应力的降低.     

Manufacturing residual stresses during the production of zirconium sheets

The experimental-and-theoretical method of determining residual stresses in strip metal wares made of zirconium alloys, which manifest the transversal-isotropic properties after cold rolling, is investigated. The results show that considerable transverse and longitudinal residual stresses appear on the strip surface. The character of their distribution agrees qualitatively with the known regularities of the distribution of these quantities during rolling.     

Influence of peritectic transformation on the hardening,structure, and properties of steel castings

The influence of peritectic transformation on the deposition of solid phase over the cross section of pearlitic steel ingots with 0.2–0.4% C is studied. To prevent structural and chemical microheterogeneity, measures ensuring dense and uniform metal over the casting cross section are proposed.     

Stress-induced martensitic transformation and impact toughness of cast irons and high-carbon Fe-Ni-C steel

The relationship between the impact toughness and stress-induced martensitic transformation, which occurs during the impact process, has been studied in white cast irons and an Fe-Ni-C alloy at different temperatures. The experimental results have shown that in the brittle white cast irons, the stress-induced martensitic transformation makes a positive contribution to the impact toughness, and lowering the stability of austenite increases the toughness. In contrast, the transformation makes a negative contribution to the toughness of high-carbon austenitic steels, and lowering the stability of austenite decreases the toughness. The present work supports the early theory^[1] that the magnitude of the toughness change depends on the fracture properties of the new phase and the energy being dissipated during the transformation process. Using the crystallographic model for the stress-induced martensitic transformation, which was originally developed in ceramics and was then refined and extended to irons and steels, the effect of the stress-induced martensitic transformation on the impact toughness can be predicted.     

Heat flow during the laser transformation hardening of cylindrical bodies

A heat flow model was developed for the laser transformation hardening of cylindrical bodies. Three different cases of surface hardening were considered,i.e., the surface of a solid cylinder, the outer surface of a hollow cylinder, and the inner surface of a hollow cylinder. The thermal responses of the workpiece in these three different cases were compared and discussed. The validity of the model was verified with experimental results obtained on 4140 steel. The effects of operating conditions on heat flow and the surface hardening of the workpiece were discussed. These operating conditions are the travel speed of the workpiece, the power input, the width of the laser beam on the surface of the workpiece, and the cooling of the workpiece. In order to provide general heat flow information, calculated results based on dimensionless variables were presented.     

冷作硬化非调质钢的连续冷却相变规律

钢的连续冷却相变曲线(CCT)是组织调控的基本依据,为了优化紧固件用冷作硬化非调钢热轧态的组织和力学性能,采用DIL805A相变仪测定了试验钢在0.1～50℃/s不同冷却速率下的热膨胀曲线,结合金相硬度法确定相变类型,并绘制了试验钢的CCT曲线.结果 表明,试验钢马氏体转变点(Ms)为280℃,在不同冷速范围内均有铁素...     

The influence of the stress state on the plasticity of transformation induced plasticity-aided steel

The influence of the stress state on the plastic deformation of CMnSi, CMnSi(Nb), and CMnAlSi transformation induced plasticity (TRIP)-aided steel has been analyzed. Imposing hydrostatic pressures up to 800 MPa during tensile deformation made it possible to change the stress state of the tensile testing specimens. It was found that the ratio of normal to shear stresses has a pronounced effect on the evolution of the microstructure, the austenite volume fraction change during straining, and the fracture surface morphology. The CMnAlSi TRIP steel, which has the largest uniform elongation and the smallest equivalent strain at fracture in the absence of the hydrostatic pressure, had a more pronounced improvement of all plastic characteristics at increasing hydrostatic pressure. An increased austenite stabilization, brought about by the high hydrostatic pressure, was clearly observed. The austenite stabilization results in a decrease of 20 °C to 25 °C of M _s for an increase of 100 MPa of the hydrostatic pressure. The implications of the observations could be far-reaching for new sheet forming technologies, such as hydroforming, as the full transformation potential is available for crashsensitive structural parts by avoiding the formation of the martensite during forming operations.     

Phase transformations and control of residual stresses in thick spray-formed steel shells

Large, thick steel shells for tooling applications have been produced using a robot manipulated electric arc spraying technique with steady-state temperatures ranging from 170 °C to 450 °C. Critical to these experiments has been the use of a real-time feedback control system for surface temperature based on infrared thermal imaging. There was a reproducible trend in net residual shell distortion as a function of temperature with residual tensile stresses in the shell for temperatures ≤210 °C and ≥390 °C, and net compressive stresses at intermediate temperatures. In-situ linear displacement sensor experiments have been used to investigate the dynamic distortion of sprayed steel shells on steel substrates, over the same range of surface temperatures. Residual and in-situ distortion measurements confirmed two manufacturing temperatures at which stresses in the steel shells were either minimized or eliminated. A numerical model has been developed to relate shell quench and transformations stresses to the shell dynamic distortion behavior. It is proposed that tensile quench stresses are balanced by the time- and temperature-dependent expansive austenite-to-bainite phase transformation.     

Effect of martensitic transformation on nano/ultrafine-grained structure in 304 austenitic stainless steel

304 austenitic stainless steel was cold rolled in the range of 20%-80%reductions and then annealed at 700-900°C for 60 sto obtain nano/ultrafine-grained(NG/UFG)structure.Transmission electron microscopy,electron backscatter diffraction and X-ray diffraction were used to characterize the resulting microstructures.The results showed that with the increase of cold reduction,the content of martensite was increased.The steel performed work hardening during cold-working owing to the occurrence of strain induced martensite which nucleated in single shear bands.Further rolling broke up the lath-type martensite into dislocation-cell type martensite because of the formation of slip bands.Samples annealed at 800-960°C for 60 swere of NG/UFG structure with different percentage of nanocrystalline(60-100 nm)and ultrafine(100-500 nm)grains,submicron size(500-1000 nm)grains and micron size(1000 nm)grains.The value of the Gibbs free energy exhibited that the reversion mechanism of the reversion process was shear controlled by the annealing temperature.For a certain annealing time during the reversion process,austenite nucleated first on dislocation-cell type martensite and the grains grew up subsequently and eventually to be micrometer/submicrometer grains,while the nucleation of austenite on lath-type martensite occurred later resulting in nanocrystalline/ultrafine grains.The existence of the NG/UFG structure led to a higher strength and toughness during tensile test.