Comparison of Global Food Traceability Regulations and Requirements

The food traceability regulations of 21 Organization for Economic Co‐Operation and Development (OECD) countries were examined with attention to whether these regulations are comprehensive for all food commodities and processed foods. The countries were evaluated based on responses to a series of questions that were developed to allow assessment of their traceability programs. The questions sought background information on whether: mandatory traceability regulation(s) exists at the national level within a given country; regulations include imported products, and the nature of required documentation for imports; an electronic database(s) for traceability exists and, if present, its accessibility; and labeling regulations allow consumer access and understanding of traceability. The examination ranked the countries that have specific traceability regulations for all commodities, both domestic and imports, as “Progressive,” while countries with less broad or stringent regulations were ranked as “Moderate,” and countries that were still in the developmental stage of mandatory or industry‐led traceability requirements were ranked as “Regressive.” Aggregate scores were developed from all of the rankings, determined on the basis of the questions, for each of the 21 countries, to provide an overall world ranking score. The aggregate scores were “Superior,” “Average,” or “Poor.”     

The Standard Scales of Texture: Rescaling by Magnitude Estimation

Food items comprising the six “standard scales” of texture [Szczesniak et al., J. Food Sci. 28: 397 (1963)] were rescaled using the psychophysical method of modulus-free magnitude estimation. The category scale position of each food item on the standard scales was plotted against the geometric mean magnitude estimate for that item. The category (interval) scale data were concave downward relative to the magnitude (ratio) scale data. These results underscore the differences that can be obtained by using either interval or ratio procedures and suggest that the attributes of “hardness,”“chewiness,”“fracturability,”“viscosity,”“gumminess,” and “adhesiveness” can be classified as “prothetic” continua.     

COLLABORATIVE DETERMINATION OF BEER FOAM STABILITY BY RUDIN AND NIBEM

Two methods, the “Rudin” method and the “Nibem” method have been tested for the determination of foam stability of beer by the Analysis Committee of the Institute of Brewing . For the Rudin method, over the range 90 to 102 seconds, it was judged that precision values were independent of the foam stability of the sample. Values for r₉₅ and R₉₅ were 6 and 22 seconds, respectively . For the Nibem method, precision was also independent of the foam stability of the sample over the range 213 to 246 seconds. Values for r₉₅ and R₉₅ were 22 and 70 seconds, respectively . The two methods ranked the foam stability of the three beers tested differently. This is to be expected, bearing in mind the different principles of the two procedures .     

Multiple Comparison Procedures for Analysis of Ranked Data

Multiple comparison procedures for analysis of ranked data are available in tabular form for quick determination of significance. It was determined that the method used by Basker and Newell to determine critical values was overly conservative. Those values are useful for determining the overall significance of the model. Additional multiple comparison tables of critical values are presented for determining the rank significance of all samples within the set. Both sets of tables are included.     

Biophenolic profile in olives by nuclear magnetic resonance

The molecular composition of biophenols in olive fruit was investigated in order to experiment with novel procedures for the determination of these microcomponents in fresh and processed table olives. The presence of biophenols in table olives, with recognized antioxidant activity, can be strictly linked to the texture and the organoleptic characteristics of the food product, giving a functional value to this Mediterranean food. Olives from Spain (“Hojiblanca” cv.), Portugal (“Douro” cv.), Greece (“Conservolia” and “Thasos”cv.) and Italy (“Taggiasca” and “Cassanese” cv.) were examined, because the experimental data, checked by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), show molecular composition differences in the tested samples related to the geographic area of analyzed olive fruit cultivars [Bianco, A., & Uccella, N. (2000). Biophenolic components of olives. Food Research International, 33, 475–485]. Three different protocols were utilized: the first one allows the determination of the biophenolic content present as free and esterified compounds; the second affords the total biophenolic content; the third indicates the biophenols present as glycosides. The biophenolic content, which was previously determined by classic HPLC methods (Bianco & Uccella, 2000), was checked by a simple ¹H-NMR experiment. The comparison between the data obtained from ¹H-NMR with those measured by HPLC, indicates a good agreement and suggests the possibility of employing ¹H-NMR for the rapid determination of biophenolic content in olives and also in other foods.     

Identification of Key Textural Attributes of Viscoelastic Syrups By Regression Analysis

Regression analysis was used to identify key textural attributes in the sensory evaluation of table syrups with varying viscoelastic properties. The syrups were sensorily evaluated in the mouth, while being poured out of a bottle and while the syrup was spreading on a flat surface. The triplet “Viscous,”“Smooth,” and “Slippery” gave the best average coefficient of determination (R²) in the mouth; the triplet “Watery,”“Even,” and “Drippy” gave the best R² for pouring; and the triplet “Viscous,”“Even,” and “Smooth” the best R² for spreading. The results suggested that there were significantly different texture perception cues in the three different evaluation procedures.     

Mechanisms for controlling enzymatic reactions in foods

Enzymes, as biocatalysts, are capable of specific manipulation of all the major biomolecules found in foods, and a wide variety of enzymes are therefore used as supplements for various food processing operations. There are, however, certain enzymes whose activities result in a rapid deterioration of food quality to be controlled in order to maintain quality and to extend product shelf‐life. Various mechanisms and techniques for controlling the undesirable activities of such enzymes in foods have been developed ingeniously over the years by food scientists. These include traditional methods like low‐ and high‐temperature treatment, chemical treatments, and control of water activity involving dehydration and salting. These techniques, however, have certain limitations, such as (1) changing the prime quality of certain foods, (2) health risks associated with certain chemical treatments, and (3) consumer preference for certain foods to be raw and “natural”. Novel and potentially viable techniques such as pressurization, use of enzymes (“killer enzymes”), ionizing radiation, chemical modification of enzymes, and other naturally occurring protein inhibitors have therefore been developed to help alleviate some of these problems.     

Similarity testing in sensory and consumer research

Similarity testing is an important methodology in sensory and consumer research. It is of practical and theoretical significance. In many comparative experiments in sensory and consumer field, the objective is not to demonstrate difference but to demonstrate equivalence or similarity between treatments. It is widely acknowledged that the conventional hypothesis test with the null hypothesis of “no difference” between two treatments is appropriate for difference testing but inappropriate for similarity testing. Schuirmann [Biometrics 37 (1981) 617] introduced the use of interval hypotheses testing in the context of bioequivalence. For the interval hypotheses testing, the null hypothesis is that the difference between two treatments is larger than a specified non-zero value defining equivalence or similarity and the alternative hypothesis is that the difference is smaller than the specified value. If the null hypothesis is rejected, equivalence or similarity is then concluded. Based on this concept and approach, the present paper discusses some statistical procedures of similarity testing used for different situations in sensory and consumer research. The procedures include similarity testing for hedonic or intensity rating means, similarity testing using conventional discrimination methods (forced choice methods and the methods with response bias) and similarity testing for preference proportions.     

Changes of Bioactive Compounds and Ethylene Production of Japanese Plums Treated with Pre-Harvest Aminoethoxyvinylglycine

The effects of pre-harvest aminoethoxyvinylglycine treatments on bioactive compounds, fruit ripening, and quality of plum fruits (Prunus salicina Lindell cvs. “Black Beauty,” “Black Amber,” and “Friar”) were investigated in this research. Whole trees were sprayed once with an aqueous solution containing aminoethoxyvinylglycine (0, 100, and 200 mg L^–1) two weeks before the anticipated commercial harvest for each cultivar separately. In all plum cultivars, the results showed that aminoethoxyvinylglycine treatments were effective in reducing ethylene production and respiration rate. The red color development was delayed by aminoethoxyvinylglycine treatments during the ripening. The fruit mass and geometric mean diameter significantly decreased, while loss of flesh firmness was decelerated with aminoethoxyvinylglycine concentrations. Aminoethoxyvinylglycine treatments decelerated loss of flesh firmness. Soluble solid content was reduced, whereas titratable acidity and ripening index increased with aminoethoxyvinylglycine treatments. Aminoethoxyvinylglycine-treated fruits exhibited lower levels of total phenolics, total antioxidant activity, and individual phenolics. This study revealed that pre-harvest aminoethoxyvinylglycine treatments were more effective in delaying plum fruit softening. The main advantage is to maintain the firmness of late-harvested fruit by retaining bioactive compounds of plum fruit.     

INFLUENCE OF SOIL NUTRIENT LEVELS ON HARVEST YIELD AND MALTING QUALITY OF BREWING BARLEY

Four levels of N, P and K nutrition (poor, moderate, satisfactory and high) and all their possible combinations with 64 treatments in two replications (128 plots) were studied in a long term field trial on barley yield and malting quality. A standard East-European spring barley “Opal” (bred in Czechoslovakia) was grown in 1986, 13th year of the agricultural experiment, involving various crops in previous years, on a calcareous loamy chernozem soil. The optimum fertility levels for yield enhancement resulted in the poorest malting quality: low modification and extract but long saccharification time and high protein. To solve this problem the brewing industry will have to apply the well-known technological methods available since growers are not likely to give up their fertilizers. Applying soil and plant analysis data, having knowledge about both soil and plant optimum values, the danger of the excessive use of fertilizers can be realized and decreased.     

On a Rank Sum Test Due to Kramer

Kramer proposed two tests based on the ranked preferences of panelists. The first examines whether a predetermined treatment is superior to some other treatments. Since this test does not take into account the rank sums of the other treatments, the test is not appropriate for making this comparison. The second test examines whether there is any significant difference among the treatments. Since this test does not use the required two-tailed probabilities, it is also not appropriate for making its intended comparison. In addition, even the one-tailed probabilities are incorrect as given in the published tables.     

Differential gene expression in dairy cows under negative energy balance and ketosis: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Development of ketosis in high-producing dairy cows contributes to several animal health issues and highlights the need for a better understanding of the genetic basis of metabolic diseases. To evaluate the pattern of differential gene expression in the liver of cows under negative energy balance (NEB), and under subclinical and clinical ketosis, a meta-analysis of gene expression and genome-wide association studies results was performed. An initial systematic review identified 118 articles based on the key words “cow,” “liver,” “negative energy balance,” “ketosis,” “expression,” “qPCR,” “microarray,” “proteomic,” “RNA-Seq,” and “GWAS.” After further screening for only peer-reviewed and pertinent articles for gene expression during NEB and clinical and subclinical ketosis (considering plasma levels of β-hydroxybutyrate), 20 articles were included in the analysis. From the systematic review, 430 significant SNPs identified by genome-wide association studies (GWAS) were assigned to genes reported in gene expression studies by considering chromosome and base pair positions in the ARS-UCD 1.2 bovine assembly. Venn diagrams were created to integrate the data obtained in the systematic review, and Gene Ontology enrichment analysis was carried out using official gene names. A QTL enrichment analysis was also performed to identify potential positional candidate loci. Twenty-four significant SNPs were located within the coordinates of differentially expressed genes located on chromosomes 2, 3, 6, 9, 11, 14, 27, and 29. Three significant metabolic pathways were associated with NEB and subclinical and clinical ketosis. In addition, 2 important genes, PPARA (peroxisome proliferator activated receptor alpha) and ACACA (acetyl-coenzyme A carboxylase α), were identified, which were differentially expressed in the 3 metabolic conditions. The PPARA gene is involved in the regulation of lipid metabolism and fatty liver disease and the ACACA gene encodes an enzyme that catalyzes the carboxylation of acetyl-coenzyme A to malonyl-coenzyme A, which is a rate-limiting step in fatty acid synthesis. Gene network analysis revealed co-expression interactions among 34 genes associated with functions involving fatty acid transport and fatty acid metabolism. For the annotated QTL, 9 QTL were identified for ketosis. The genes FN1 (fibronectin 1) and PTK2 (protein tyrosine kinase 2), which are mainly involved in cell adhesion and formation of extracellular matrix constituents, were enriched for QTL previously associated with the trait “ketosis” on chromosome 2 and for the trait “milk iron content” on chromosome 14, respectively. This integration of gene expression and GWAS data provides an additional understanding of the genetic background of NEB and subclinical and clinical ketosis in dairy cattle. Thus, it is a useful approach to identify biological mechanisms underlying these metabolic conditions in dairy cattle.     

Vergleichende Untersuchung technologisch wichtiger Holzeigenschaften der Schwarzpappelhybriden „Tannenhoeft”, „I 45/51” und „Harff”

Comparative studies of the technological wood properties of the black poplar hybrid clones “Tannenhoeft” and “I 45/51” were conducted for comparison with the well-known old-stock cultivar “Harff”. Eight trees of each clone from two different sites were tested for their annual ring width, percentage of heart wood and tension wood, fibre length, specific gravity, statie strength and shock resistance as well as veneer quality. The results show that the wood of “Tannenhoeft” is of mediocre quality with high growth in diameter, high specific gravity, and shock resistance; therefore, its technological value is considered good. The wood of “I 45/51” shows high growth in diameter and high shock resistance, but an unfavourably high content of tension wood and low specific gravity. The overall wood quality of “I 45/51” is considered low.     

Characterization of Sodium Mobility and Binding by 23Na NMR Spectroscopy in a Model Lipoproteic Emulsion Gel for Sodium Reduction

The effects of formulation and processing parameters on sodium availability in a model lipid/protein‐based emulsion gel were studied for purposes of sodium reduction. Heat‐set model gels were prepared with varying levels of protein, lipid, and NaCl contents and high pressure homogenization treatments. Single quantum and double quantum‐filtered ²³Na NMR spectroscopy experiments were used to characterize sodium mobility, structural order around “bound” (restricted mobility) sodium, and sodium binding, which have been correlated to saltiness perception in food systems previously. Total sodium mobility was lower in gels with higher protein or fat content, and was not affected by changes in homogenization pressure. The gels with increased protein, fat, or homogenization pressure had increased structure surrounding “bound” sodium and more relative “bound” sodium due to increased interfacial protein interactions. The data obtained in this study provide information on factors affecting sodium availability, which can be applied towards sodium reduction in lipid/protein‐based foods.     

Removal of zinc residues from apple leaves by hydrochloric acid and leaching of other nutrients in the process

Leaves sampled from “Lord Lambourne”, “Starking Delicious” and “Golden Delicious” apple trees sprayed with zinc sulphate were treated in various ways (a detergent wash, an acid wash, a 10 min, or a 20 min soak in N-HCl). Leaves which were soaked had the lowest zinc content, and this was attributed to “internal” zinc; the other treatments left behind more zinc, and the increase was attributed to “external” and/or easily leachable zinc. A single spray (0.3% ZnSO₄. H₂O) increased “internal” zinc contents to ～50 parts/10⁶, and three sprays to ～150 Parts/10⁶. Soaking the leaves in N-HCl for 10 min leached out K, Mg and Mn but not N, P or Fe. As with zinc, soaking for 20 min did not, except in one case, leach out any additional amounts of nutrients. It is suggested that there may be an “easily leachable” fraction of K, Mg, Mn, and possibly Zn, which is removed from the leaves by the 10 min soak in N-HCl.     

Cetylpyridinium chloride direct spray treatments reduce Salmonella on cantaloupe rough surfaces

Cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) solutions (0, 0.5, or 1.0%) were applied to cantaloupe (“Athena” and “Hale's Best Jumbo” cultivars) rind plugs, either before or after inoculation with a broth culture of Salmonella Michigan (10⁹ CFU/mL) and held at 37°C for 1 or 24 hr. Rind plugs were diluted, shaken, and sonicated, and solutions were enumerated. Texture quality and color were evaluated over 14 days storage at 4°C after 0 and 1% CPC spray applications. A 0.5 or 1.0% (vol/vol) application of CPC after Salmonella reduced the pathogen levels between 2.34 log CFU/mL and 5.16 log CFU/mL in comparison to the control (p < .01). No differences were observed in the firmness and color of 1% CPC treated cantaloupes. Salmonella concentrations on cantaloupes, treated with 1.0% CPC, were lower after 1 hr storage as compared to 24 hr. And, Salmonella on “Athena” surfaces were more susceptible to CPC spray treatments than on “Hale's Best Jumbo.”

Practical applications

Cetylpyridinium chloride (CPC) is the active ingredient of some antiseptic oral mouth rinses, and has a broad antimicrobial spectrum with a rapid bactericidal effect on gram‐positive pathogens. The spray application of CPC solutions to cantaloupe may reduce the level of Salmonella surface contamination during production from irrigation water and manure fertilizers and, during food processing by contaminated equipment and food handlers. Since the surfaces of cantaloupes are highly rough or irregular, bacteria can easily attach to these surfaces and become difficult to remove. Appropriate postharvest washing and sanitizing procedures are needed that can help control Salmonella and other pathogens on melons, especially on cantaloupes with nested surfaces. A direct surface spray application of CPC may be an alternative antimicrobial postharvest treatment to reduce pathogen contamination of cantaloupe melons, while providing an alternative to chlorine‐based solutions.     

The risk of transfer of foodborne bacterial hazards in Turkey through the consumption of meat; risk ranking of muscle foods with the potential to transfer Campylobacter spp.

This paper presents a simple approach to semi-quantitatively estimating the risk for human foodborne campylobacteriosis in Turkey, with a focus on typical/traditional meat and meat dishes. The following factors are considered: prevalence/concentration of the pathogen in raw meat according to species, changes in the pathogen’s titre as a result of heat treatment and cross-contamination, serving frequency and size, and demographic data. Regional differences as well as differences between social groups are considered in particular. The biological hazard “Campylobacter” is characterized as associated with conditions prevailing in the meat chain and this information is linked to food consumption and other data thus allowing an estimate of consumers’ exposure to Campylobacter via typical Turkish meat dishes. The latter are ranked on the basis of the presence of meat components and the associated risks.