Automatic Bolometer Bridge Using an Adaptive Control Technique for RE Power Measurement

When RF power is measured using a bolometer bridge, generally its accuracy depends on the power level to be measured and the sensitivity of the bolometer mount in use. The former is principally due to the accuracy of bridge current measurement and the latter is due to an imperfection of bridge control. These are the dominant errors of the bridge measurement system. The objective of this paper is to design a bolometer bridge which offers an effective reduction of these errors and simplify its automation. As a result, a system introducing a digital control technique is proposed and tested.     

temperature compensated silicon strain transducer

A high output semiconductor strain sensing device for use in transducer applications is described. It consists of a Wheatstone bridge network diffused into a small silicon chip and has a maximum strain sensitivity of I00mV/V/1 000 μ e. With the addition of a simple three resistor network, the device can be compensated such that the temperature dependence of the zero strain offset voltage can be reduced to less than 0.1 μ e per C and the temperature coefficient of sensitivity to less than 001% per C. The properties of pressure transducers made with silicon diaphragms into which similar Wheatstone bridges have been diffused, are also outlined.     

Analysis of the operation of automatic thermistor bridges

Conclusions The results thus obtained can be used for designing thermistor bridge circuits according to the above-mentioned requirements. Different procedures can be used for computing a specific circuit. However, in every case it is necessary to aim at meeting the requirements of the auxiliary bridge operation under conditions of a small unbalance, and ensuring that the dc power which heats thermistor T should amount to 1/3 of the total power. In view of the dispersion of thermistor parameters it is advisable to make the initial selection of thermistors for the bridge so that when the thermistors are replaced the bridge can be reset solely by means of the adjustable bridge components.     

Nonlinear microwave spin wave interferometer

The characteristics of a nonlinear microwave spin wave interferometer were experimentally studied for the first time. The interferometer was implemented according to a bridge scheme with a nonlinear spin wave phase shifter based on an yttrium-iron garnet film. The maximum sensitivity of the nonlinear interferometer with respect to the input signal level was reached with a phase shifter operating on the forward volume spin waves. In the GHz frequency range, an increase in the microwave power up to a few mW led to a signal phase shift exceeding 180 °.     

Repeatability and sensitivity of FTIR ATR spectral analysis methods for bituminous binders

Bituminous binders as organic materials are prone to aging mainly by oxidation. Aging changes the viscoelastic behavior of the material over time towards higher stiffness and brittleness. FTIR has been increasingly used lately to investigate impacts of oxidative aging on the chemical structure of bitumen. Especially the carbonyl and sulfoxide bands are affected by aging and commonly used to describe changes due to evolving oxidation of a binder. However, spectra obtained from FTIR can be analyzed in fundamentally different ways and the analysis method applied to a spectrum has an impact on the gathered results and especially on the repeatability and sensitivity with regards to oxidative changes. For the presented study, two bituminous binders, a PG 64-16 and an SBS modified PG 76-22 PM were aged by RTFO and PAV and subsequently measured by FTIR. The obtained spectra (up to 90 individual spectra per aging state) were analyzed employing various methods using either the original or a normalized spectrum, a band maximum or integration based calculation of indices from an absolute or tangential baseline. By analyzing the coefficient of variation of the different analysis methods, it was found that not all analysis methods exhibit the same repeatability and sensitivity. From the findings of the study it can be recommended to work with normalized spectra, use an absolute baseline and work with integration of areas for index production in favor over band maximum based methods.     

Four-Terminal Equal-Power Transformer-Ratio-Arm Bridge

A transfonner-ratio-arm bridge is described that combines the high sensitivity of equal-power bridges with the immunity from lead errors of ac bridges analogous to the Kelvin double bridge. The latter apply either equal current or voltage to both impedances being compared and suffer a reduction in sensitivity when the impedance ratio is high, while the sensitivity of bridges that apply equal power (or voltamperes) to both impedances is independent of this ratio. The new bridge has two transformers in addition to the two of the usual equal-power bridge to reduce lead-impedance errors. Two current loops are formed around each of the two impedances being compared making four-terminal connections to both. The auxiliary transformers couple between loops on the two sides of the bridge and act to maintain accurate current and voltage ratios in spite of series impedance. The expression for the error due to lead impedance is given and is compared with those for other four-terminal bridges and with measured results. A lead-impedance-balance procedure is given that reduces lead errors still further.     

Fiber-amplifier-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy with near-infrared tunable diode lasers

A new approach to wavelength-modulation photoacoustic spectroscopy is reported, which incorporates diode lasers in the near infrared and optical fiber amplifiers to enhance sensitivity. We demonstrate the technique with ammonia detection, yielding a sensitivity limit less than 6 parts in 10(9), by interrogating a transition near 1532 nm with 500 mW of output power from the fiber amplifier, an optical pathlength of 18.4 cm, and an integration time constant of 10 s. This sensitivity is 15 times better than in prior published results for detecting ammonia with near-infrared diode lasers. The normalized minimum detectable fractional optical density, alphaminl, is 1.8 x 10(-8); the minimum detectable absorption coefficient, alphamin, is 9.5 x 10(-10) cm(-1); and the minimum detectable absorption coefficient normalized by power and bandwidth is 1.5 x 10(-9) W cm(-1)/square root Hz. These measurements represent what we believe to be the first use of fiber amplifiers to enhance photoacoustic spectroscopy, and this technique is applicable to all other species that fall within the gain curves of optical fiber amplifiers.     

Ammonia detection by use of quartz-enhanced photoacoustic spectroscopy with a near-IR telecommunication diode laser

A gas sensor based on quartz-enhanced photoacoustic detection and a fiber-coupled telecommunication distributed-feedback diode laser was designed and characterized for trace NH3 monitoring at a 1.53-microm wavelength (overtone absorption region). Signal and noise dependence on gas pressure were studied to optimize sensor performance. The ammonia concentration resulting in a noise-equivalent signal was found to be 0.65 parts per million by volume with 38-mW optical excitation power and a lock-in amplifier time constant of 1 s. This corresponds to a normalized absorption sensitivity of 7.2 x 10(-9) cm(-1) W/Hz1/2, comparable with detection sensitivity achieved in conventional photoacoustic spectroscopy. The sensor architecture can be the basis for a portable gas analyzer.     

A comprehensive design and rating study of evaporative coolers and condensers. Part II. Sensitivity analysis

Sensitivity analysis can be used to identify important model parameters, in particular, normalized sensitivity coefficients; by allowing a one-on-one comparison. Regarding design of evaporative coolers, the sensitivity analysis shows that all sensitivities are unaffected by varying the mass flow ratio and that outlet process fluid temperature is the most important factor. In rating evaporative coolers, effectiveness is found to be most sensitive to the process fluid flow rate. Also, the process fluid outlet temperature is most sensitive to the process fluid inlet temperature. For evaporative condensers, the normalized sensitivity coefficient values indicate that the condensing temperature is the most sensitive parameter and that these are not affected by the value of the mass flow ratio. For evaporative condenser design, it was seen that, for a 53% increase in the inlet relative humidity, the normalized sensitivity of the surface area increased 1.8 times in value and, for a 15 °C increase in the condenser temperature, the sensitivity increased by 3.5 times. The performance study of evaporative condensers show that, for a 72% increase in the inlet relative humidity, the normalized sensitivity coefficient for effectiveness increased 2.4 times and, for a 15 °C increase in the condenser temperature, it doubled in value.     

基于临界折射纵波递归定量分析的纯铁疲劳损伤无损评价EI北大核心CSCD

利用超声检测技术无损评价金属材料的疲劳损伤程度,是保证高性能零部件承载性能和服役可靠性的重要手段。以工业纯铁低周疲劳损伤为研究对象,提出将临界折射纵波(critically refracted longitudinal,L_(CR))与递归定量分析相结合的无损评价方法。结果表明:拉-压加载过程中表现为循环硬化,随加载周次增加至1000周次,L_(CR)波幅值及对应归一化幅值差A_(dif)整体呈单调变化,5 MHz检测频率的灵敏度高于2.25 MHz。进一步对L_(CR)波进行递归定量分析,递归图随疲劳损伤发展变化明显,提取归一化递归度差RR_(dif)作为损伤指标,较时域、频域和时频域最大幅值等指标的灵敏度显著提升,增加幅度最大可达44%,为早期疲劳损伤的无损评价提供了新手段。     

Impact Response Characterization in Composite Plates—Experimental Validation

This paper presents an experimental study for the normalized low-velocity impact response of composite plates. It is demonstrated that a characterization diagram that shows the relationship of three non-dimensional parameters with the normalized maximum impact force can be used to fully characterize the response. With the governing non-dimensional parameters obtained experimentally, it is shown that impact tests having the same non-dimensional parameters, have dynamic similarity and the same non-dimensional response. Furthermore, the experiments can be placed in appropriate dynamic regions in which simplified dynamic models can be used to predict the response.     

Maximum roll angle estimation of a ship in confused sea waves via a quasi-deterministic approach

This paper considers the maximum roll motion of a ship in confused sea waves. The ship motion is described by a nonlinear differential equation including quadratic damping and cubic restoring force. The excitation of the ship is represented by a stationary mean-zero Gaussian process of a given power spectral density function. It is shown that a reliable estimate of the maximum roll motion is found considering the ship response to an approximate deterministic representation of an appropriately large and adequately rich (frequency-wise) load. Specifically, the time variation of the load is approximated by a normalized autocovariance function; the maximum amplitude of the load is taken as a certain multiple of the standard deviation of the stochastic load process. This approximation relates to the method of quasi-deterministic representation of extreme realizations of a stationary Gaussian process; the method is interpreted as a tool for generating deterministic time histories of the load which are compatible with a certain power spectral density function. The efficacy of this perspective is shown by comparison with the results from pertinent Monte Carlo simulations.Next, the paper addresses the ship stability problem in the space of initial conditions. In this context, it shows that the proposed approximation can be adequately utilized for a ship safety assessment.     

车轨桥中高频耦合振动分析的功率流方法及模型

轮轨滚动激励引起的桥梁振动响应和输入功率是计算桥梁结构辐射噪声的重要参数。时域车轨桥耦合振动分析常用于低频振动分析,但在中高频分析时效率较低。为此,提出一种基于力法原理的频域功率流方法解决这一问题。采用无限长Euler梁或Timoshenko梁建立钢轨部件,采用无限大Kirchhoff板、Mindlin板或有限元模型建立桥梁部件,采用弹簧元件模拟钢轨与桥梁之间的连接扣件,并以弹簧力为未知量建立力法基本方程。对比计算了不同轨桥模型对U梁和箱梁桥振动功率的影响。结果表明:U梁桥面板的剪切效应对桥梁振动功率计算结果影响很大,采用传统的无限大Kirchhoff板模型将导致功率级计算误差达到15 dB,而采用Mindlin板模型可获得良好的计算精度与效率。相对于箱梁实体有限元模型而言,采用Mindlin板模型的误差仍然较大。     

由车激响应识别桥梁损伤的灵敏度方法

提出了由过桥汽车激励所产生的动力响应识别桥梁损伤的灵敏度方法。将桥梁等效为等长的欧拉梁单元,汽车等效为两自由度五参数模型,用桥梁损伤因子定义单元抗弯刚度的减小(即损伤的程度)。由损伤因子零向量的假设开始,桥梁损伤可以根据最小二乘法和正则化方法用测试得到的桥梁动力响应识别得到,在数值模拟中考虑了测试误差和路面不平顺的影响。算例表明,提出的识别方法理论正确,识别得到的结果可信,可以有效地、方便地识别桥梁的损伤。     

LRB隔震桥梁空间变异性地震随机响应分析

对装有铅芯橡胶支座（Lead—Rubber—Bearing，LRB）的隔震大跨连续梁桥进行了考虑地震动空间变异性的随机响应分析。地面运动加速度功率谱模型为零均值的平稳高斯过程，描述为过滤白噪声施加于支撑各点。地震动空间变异性综合考虑空间不相干效应、行波效应和局部场地土效应。推导了LRB隔震结构多点激励运动方程，并运用随机等价线性化方法以计入铅芯橡胶支座（LRB）的滞回非线性性能。对一大跨LRB隔震梁桥进行了一致激励和综合考虑地震动空间变异性的三种工况计算，得到了各工况下响应的拟静力项、动力项和总响应项的各自最大值的均值，并进行了对比分析。结果表明，对于带有铅芯橡胶支座的减隔震大跨连续梁桥，多点激励效应不容忽视，一致激励会对结构产生不安全的估计。     

The Fundamental Limit to the Balance of a Microwave Bridge Containing a Dispersive Element

An expression is derived for the maximum balance obtainable with a magic-T microwave bridge as a function of the variance of the frequency modulation (FM) noise pedestal of the microwave power source when one arm of the bridge is terminated by a dispersive component. This expression is verified experimentally and the long-term stability of the balance with/without a dispersive component is studied.     

考虑P-△效应的桥梁结构震后概率残余位移分析

残余位移是评价桥梁结构震后可修复性和可用性的重要指标,而P-△;效应对桥梁结构的残余位移影响显著。综合考虑P-△;效应和地震动随机特性的影响,通过大量的非弹性动力时程分析,定量地分析桥梁结构震后残余位移的概率统计特征和经验预测方程。首先根据动力平衡原理,建立考虑P-△;效应的桥梁结构非弹性地震动力响应分析的运动控制微分方程,然后结合所筛选的69条强震记录,利用概率统计方法定量地分析P-△;效应、屈服后刚度比、规一化屈服强度和自振周期等因素对震后残余位移的概率统计特征的影响,进而对残余位移与峰值位移之间的相关性进行讨论,并建立残余位移与峰值位移之间的经验预测方程。分析结果表明：P-△;效应、屈服后刚度比和规一化屈服强度对残余位移的均值影响较大,而对残余位移的变异性影响相对较小;桥梁结构的震后残余位移可以描述为对数正态分布或威布尔分布随机变量;残余位移与峰值位移之间具有较强的相关性,且二者比值的均值（变异系数）随着自振周期和稳定系数的增大而增大（减小）。     

Sensitivity and Dynamic Range Considerations for Homodyne Detection Systems

The effects of modulation frequency, RF reference power, and external bias upon the sensitivity and dynamic range of microwave homodyne detection systems was measured for point contact diodes and low l/f noise Schottky and backward diodes. The measurements were made at 4.89 GHz using a signal to noise ratio of 3 dB and a detection system bandwidth of 10 Hz. Maximum sensitivities of -135, -150, and -145 dBm, and dynamic ranges of 92, 110, and 124 dB were measured for the point contact, Schottky, and backward diodes at modulation frequencies of 30, 30, and 3 kHz, respectively. It was found that the level of RF reference signal needed to obtain the maximum sensitivity was equal to or somewhat above the point where the diode changes from square law to linear detection. The results are significant in that previously reported homodyne sensitivities (not necessarily maximum) were on the order of -90 to -130 dBm for point contact diodes and no data are available for Schottky and backward diodes. Significantly improved stability, sensitivity, and dynamic range can be achieved using these low 1/f noise devices, the correct external bias, and the optimum RF reference power.     

Method of evaluation of electron transfer kinetics of a surface-confined redox system by means of Fourier transformed square wave voltammetry

A new form of Fourier transformed square wave voltammetry (FT-SWV) is proposed to simplify and accelerate the electron transfer kinetics evaluation procedures for surface-confined redox systems. Even harmonic frequencies, which are derived from the nonlinear Faradaic response, will arise in the power spectrum after Fourier transformation of the current response of FT-SWV. The profile of the even harmonic power spectra is bell-shaped and shows a maximum at a certain frequency. The electrode kinetics-dependent maximum and the corresponding frequency are equivalent to the so-called "quasi-reversible maximum" and "critical frequency" (fmax) in traditional SWV, respectively. The critical frequency can be regarded as a frequency that is synchronized to the electron transfer rate constant (k(0)). As a result, it can serve as a probe of k(0) by means of a very simple equation, k(0) = kmax fmax. Compared with traditional cyclic voltammetry, square wave voltammetry, alternating current voltammetry, and several other voltammetric techniques, this method exhibits great advantages for its simplicity, rapidity, and sensitivity.     

Bridge Circuit for Measuring Differences of Current or Voltage from a Preselected Value

A bridge circuit has been developed, using a Zener diode, which enables measurement of small changes in current or voltage from a preselected value. The circuit features increased sensitivity over a meter whose range includes the total current and is more easily used than a balanced bridge or potentiometer. The design equations are developed and the design procedure outlined for both the current and voltage difference measuring bridges, while a sample calculation is made for the current change measuring circuit. A bridge similar to that in the sample calculation was built and tested. The test circuit displayed less than 1 per cent nonlinearity of meter current vs change of input current for the design region of 460±5 ma. This shift was attributed to a slight heating of the Zener diode or a resistor at the higher test currents, but since the diode used in the test circuit had a smaller power rating than the type originally intended for use, it is not considered to be a serious limitation.