Perfluorinated compounds in human milk from Massachusetts, U.S.A

Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), notably perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), have been reported in human blood. Furthermore, the occurrence of PFCs in the blood of newborn babies, coupled with the need to study the potential association of PFC exposure with birth outcomes in neonates, suggests the need for determining the sources and magnitude of exposure in infants. In this study, nine PFCs were measured in 45 human breast milk samples collected in 2004 from Massachusetts, U.S.A. PFOS and PFOA were the predominant PFCs found at mean concentrations of 131 and 43.8 pg/mL, respectively. Comparison of the ratio of PFOS to PFOA in human milk with the ratios published for human serum from the U.S. female population suggested preferential partitioning of PFOA to milk. Concentrations of PFOA were significantly higher in the milk of mothers nursing for the first time (n = 34) than in the milk of mothers who have previously nursed (n = 8). Based on the estimated body weight and milk intake, the average and highest daily intakes of total PFCs by infants were 23.5 and 87.1 ng/kg bw, respectively. We found that the daily ingestion rates of PFOS and PFOA did not exceed the tolerable daily intake recommended by the U.K. Food Standards Agency. This is the first study to measure the occurrence of PFCs in human milk from the U.S.A.     

Perfluorinated compounds in coastal waters of Hong Kong, South China, and Korea

Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs), such as perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and related compounds, have recently been identified in the environment. PFOS, the terminal degradation product of many of the PFCs, has been found globally in many wildlife species, as well as open ocean waters, even in remote regions far from sources. In this study, a solid-phase extraction procedure coupled with high-performance liquid chromatography interfaced to high-resolution mass spectrometry was used to isolate, identify, and quantify small concentrations of PFCs in seawater. These techniques were applied to investigate the local sources of PFCs in several industrialized areas of Asia and provide information on how the PFCs are circulated by coastal currents. Ranges of concentrations of PFOS in coastal seawaters of Hong Kong, the Pearl River Delta, including the South China Sea, and Korea were 0.09-3.1, 0.02-12, and 0.04-730 pg/mL, respectively, while those of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were 0.73-5.5, 0.24-16, and 0.24-320 pg/mL, respectively. Potential sources of PFCs include major industrialized areas along the Pearl River Delta of southern China and major cities of Korea, which are several of the fastest growing industrial and economic regions in the world. Detectable concentrations of PFOS and PFOA in waters of southern China were similar to those in the coastal marine environment of Japan and certain regions in Korea. Concentrations of PFCs in several locations in Korean waters were 10-100-fold greater than those in the other locations on which we report here. The spatial and seasonal variations in PFC concentrations in surface seawaters in the Pearl River Delta and South China Sea indicate the strong influence of the Pearl River discharge on the magnitude and extent of PFC contamination in southern China. All of the concentrations of PFOS were less than those that would be expected to cause adverse effects to aquatic organisms or their predators except for one location in Korea adjacent to an industrialized area. Hazard quotients were from <0.001 to 0.002 for aquatic animals and ranged from <0.001 to 17 for predatory birds.     

Indoor sources of poly- and perfluorinated compounds (PFCS) in Vancouver, Canada: implications for human exposure

Perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) are widely detected in human blood and serum and are of concern due to their potential toxicity. This study investigated the indoor sources of these compounds and their neutral precursors through a survey of 152 homes in Vancouver, Canada. Samples were collected of indoor air, outdoor air, indoor dust, and clothes dryer lint and analyzed for neutral [i.e., fluorotelomer alcohols (FTOHs), perfluorooctane sulfonamide (FOSA), and perfluorooctane sulfonamidoethanol (FOSE)] and ionic [i.e., PFOS and perfluoroalkyl carboxylates (PFCAs)] poly- and perfluorinated compounds (PFCs). Indoor air was dominated by 8:2 FTOH with a geometric mean concentration (pg/m(3)) of 2900. Among the FOSAs and FOSEs, MeFOSE exhibited the highest air concentration with a geometric mean of 380 pg/m(3). PFOA was the major ionic PFC and was detected in all indoor air samples with a geometric mean of 28 pg/m(3), whereas PFOS was below the detection limit. The results for the ionic PFCs in indoor air are the first for North America. The pattern of the neutral PFCs in house dust was also dominated by 8:2 FTOH, with a geometric mean of 88 ng/g. Dusts were enriched (relative to air) with sulfonamidoethanol (FOSE) which comprised ～22% of the total neutral PFC content compared to only ～3% in air. PFOS and PFOA were the most prominent compounds detected in dust samples. Levels of neutral PFCs in clothes dryer lint were an order of magnitude lower compared to house dust. Human exposure estimates to PFCs for adults and children showed that inhalation was the main exposure route for neutral and ionic PFCs in adults. For toddlers, ingestion of PFCs via dust was more relevant and was on the order of a few mg/day. Results from this study contribute to our understanding of exposure pathways of PFCs to humans. This will facilitate investigations of related health effects and human monitoring data.     

Determinants of fetal exposure to polyfluoroalkyl compounds in Baltimore, Maryland

Polyfluoroalkyl compounds (PFCs), such as perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), are ubiquitous, man-made chemicals. Human data suggest that in utero exposures to these chemicals occur and some evidence of developmental toxicity in animals exists. To assess the distribution and determinants of fetal exposure to PFCs, we analyzed cord serum samples from 299 singleton newborns delivered between 2004 and 2005 in Baltimore, MD for 10 PFCs by employing on-line solid-phase extraction coupled with reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. PFOS and PFOA were detected in 99 and 100% of umbilical cord sera, with geometric mean concentrations of 4.9 and 1.6 ng/mL, respectively. PFOS and PFOA concentrations were highly correlated (Pearson's r = 0.64 after natural log transformation, p < 0.01). Eight other PFCs were detected less frequently and at lower concentrations than PFOS and PFOA. Geometric mean concentrations of PFOS for Asians (6.0 ng/mL) and Blacks (5.1 ng/mL) were higher than those for Whites (4.2 ng/mL), while PFOA levels were more evenly distributed by race. Other maternal demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, including age, education, marital status, and living in the city limits were not significantly associated with cord concentrations. Our findings suggest that in utero exposure to PFOS and PFOA is ubiquitous in a population of babies born in Baltimore, MD.     

Polyfluorinated compounds in serum linked to indoor air in office environments

We aimed to investigate the role of indoor office air on exposure to polyfluorinated compounds (PFCs) among office workers. Week-long, active air sampling was conducted during the winter of 2009 in 31 offices in Boston, MA. Air samples were analyzed for fluorotelomer alcohols (FTOHs), sulfonamides (FOSAs), and sulfonamidoethanols (FOSEs). Serum was collected from each participant (n = 31) and analyzed for 12 PFCs including PFOA and PFOS. In air, FTOHs were present in the highest concentrations, particularly 8:2-FTOH (GM = 9920 pg/m(3)). FTOHs varied significantly by building with the highest levels observed in a newly constructed building. PFOA in serum was significantly correlated with air levels of 6:2-FTOH (r = 0.43), 8:2-FTOH (r = 0.60), and 10:2-FTOH (r = 0.62). Collectively, FTOHs in air significantly predicted PFOA in serum (p < 0.001) and explained approximately 36% of the variation in serum PFOA concentrations. PFOS in serum was not associated with air levels of FOSAs/FOSEs. In conclusion, FTOH concentrations in office air significantly predict serum PFOA concentrations in office workers. Variation in PFC air concentrations by building is likely due to differences in the number, type, and age of potential sources such as carpeting, furniture, and/or paint.     

Distribution of perfluorooctane sulfonate and other perfluorochemicals in the ambient environment around a manufacturing facility in China

Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) can be released to the surrounding environment during manufacturing and usage of PFC containing products, which are considered as main direct sources of PFCs in the environment. This study evaluates the release of perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and other PFCs to the ambient environment around a manufacturing plant. Among the nine PFCs analyzed, only PFOS, perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) were found in dust, water, soil, and chicken eggs. Very high concentrations of PFOS and PFOA were found in dust from the production storage, raw material stock room, and sulfonation workshop in the manufacturing facility, with the highest value at 4962 μg/g (dry weight) for PFOS and 160 μg/g for PFOA. A decreasing trend of the three PFCs concentrations in soils, water, and chicken eggs with increasing distance from the plant was found, indicating the production site to be the primary source of PFCs in this region. Risk quotients (RQs) assessment for surface water >500 m away from the plant were less than unity. Risk assessment of PFOS using predicted no-effect concentration (PNEC, 3.23 ng/g on a logarithmic scale) indicated no immediate ecological risk of a reduction in offspring survival. PFOS concentrations in most egg samples did not exceed the benchmark concentration derived in setting a reference dose for noncancer health effects (0.025 μg/(kgxd)).     

Decline in perfluorooctanesulfonate and other polyfluoroalkyl chemicals in American Red Cross adult blood donors, 2000-2006

In 2000, 3M Company, the primary global manufacturer, announced a phase-out of perfluorooctanesulfonyl fluoride (POSF, C8F17SO2F)-based materials after perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS, C8F17SO3-) was reported in human populations and wildlife. The purpose of this study was to determine whether PFOS and other polyfluoroalkyl concentrations in plasma samples, collected in 2006 from six American Red Cross adult blood donor centers, have declined compared to nonpaired serum samples from the same locations in 2000-2001. For each location, 100 samples were obtained evenly distributed by age (20-69 years) and sex. Analytes measured, using tandem mass spectrometry, were PFOS, perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS), perfluorobutanesulfonate (PFBS), N-methyl perfluorooctanesulfonamidoacetate (Me-PFOSA-AcOH), and N-ethyl perfluorooctanesulfonamidoacetate (Et-PFOSA-AcOH). The geometric mean plasma concentrations were for PFOS 14.5 ng/mL (95% CI 13.9-15.2), PFOA 3.4 ng/ mL (95% CI 3.3-3.6), and PFHxS 1.5 ng/mL (95% CI 1.4-1.6). The majority of PFBS, Me-PFOSA-AcOH, and Et-PFOSA-AcOH concentrations were less than the lower limit of quantitation. Age- and sex-adjusted geometric means were lower in 2006 (approximately 60% for PFOS, 25% for PFOA, and 30% for PFHxS) than those in 2000-2001. The declines for PFOS and PFHxS are consistent with their serum elimination half-lives and the time since the phase-out of POSF-based materials. The shorter serum elimination half-life for PFOA and its smaller percentage decline than PFOS suggests PFOA concentrations measured in the general population are unlikely to be solely attributed to POSF-based materials. Direct and indirect exposure sources of PFOA could include historic and ongoing electrochemical cell fluorination (ECF) of PFOA, telomer production of PFOA, fluorotelomer-based precursors, and other fluoropoly-mer production.     

Perfluoroalkyl acids in the Atlantic and Canadian Arctic Oceans

We report here on the spatial distribution of C(4), C(6), and C(8) perfluoroalkyl sulfonates, C(6)-C(14) perfluoroalkyl carboxylates, and perfluorooctanesulfonamide in the Atlantic and Arctic Oceans, including previously unstudied coastal waters of North and South America, and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Perfluorooctanoate (PFOA) and perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) were typically the dominant perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) in Atlantic water. In the midnorthwest Atlantic/Gulf Stream, sum PFAA concentrations (∑PFAAs) were low (77-190 pg/L) but increased rapidly upon crossing into U.S. coastal water (up to 5800 pg/L near Rhode Island). ∑PFAAs in the northeast Atlantic were highest north of the Canary Islands (280-980 pg/L) and decreased with latitude. In the South Atlantic, concentrations increased near Rio de la Plata (Argentina/Uruguay; 350-540 pg/L ∑PFAAs), possibly attributable to insecticides containing N-ethyl perfluorooctanesulfonamide, or proximity to Montevideo and Buenos Aires. In all other southern hemisphere locations, ∑PFAAs were <210 pg/L. PFOA/PFOS ratios were typically ≥1 in the northern hemisphere, ～1 near the equator, and ≤1 in the southern hemisphere. In the Canadian Arctic, ∑PFAAs ranged from 40 to 250 pg/L, with perfluoroheptanoate, PFOA, and PFOS among the PFAAs detected at the highest concentrations. PFOA/PFOS ratios (typically ?1) decreased from Baffin Bay to the Amundsen Gulf, possibly attributable to increased atmospheric inputs. These data help validate global emissions models and contribute to understanding of long-range transport pathways and sources of PFAAs to remote regions.     

Polybrominated diphenyl ethers, perfluorinated compounds and chlorinated pesticides in swordfish (Xiphias gladius) from the Mediterranean Sea

The relative isolation of the Mediterranean population, their feeding habits, and the widespread use of their fillets for human consumption make the Mediterranean swordfish, Xiphias gladius, an interesting species from an ecotoxicological and commercial point of views. High resolution gas chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry detected 19 PBDE congeners, perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), hexachlorobenzene (HCB), p,p' and o,p' isomers of DDT, DDE, and DDD in all samples. The presence of PBDEs was reported for the first time in Mediterranean swordfish from the South Tyrrhenian Sea; total PBDE concentrations were 2218 +/- 3291 and 612 +/- 598 pg/g wet wt in the liver and in the muscle, respectively. Significant correlations were identified between BDE47 and sigmaPBDE liver concentrations versus sex and sexual maturity of specimens. The lipid-normalized concentrations ratio BDEn(liver)/BDEn(muscle+liver) suggested that this species mostly accumulates POPs in the liver. PFOS and PFOA were below the LOD (1.5 and 3 ng/g wet wt, respectively) in all the samples. The sigmaDDTs was 155 +/- 125 and 309 +/- 273 ng/g wet wt in the muscle and the liver, respectively. The estimated daily ingestion of PBDEs and DDTs through diet was lower than the acceptable weekly intakes proposed by the World Health Organization.     

Perfluorooctanesulfonate and related fluorochemicals in the Amur tiger (Panthera tigris altaica) from China

Perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) are used in a variety of industrial applications. We tested the hypothesis that, in Amur tigers (Panthera tigris altaica), captivity in industrialized areas increases PFC levels, potentially presenting a health risk to these animals. Serum samples were collected from 100 tigers from industrialized or nonindustrialized regions in China with nonpoint sources of PFCs. Mean concentrations of PFCs in these samples ranged from 1.57 +/- 0.83 ng/mL in nonindustrial Hailin to 4.31 +/- 2.90 ng/mL in industrial Beijing. PFC concentrations were significantly higher in tigers from the industrial city of Harbin than those from Hailin (p < 0.05). Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) was the most abundant PFC in all tigers and increased with age, regardless of industrial/ nonindustrial background (p < 0.01). However, PFOS concentrations were 2-4 orders of magnitude less than the current no-observed-effect level. In addition, overall PFC levels in Amur tigers were low compared with various species living in other countries, consistent with the relatively short history of PFC use in China. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that captivity in industrialized areas increases PFC levels in Amurtigers. They also suggestthat PFC accumulation will persist, and even increase, with continued use of PFCs in China.     

Perfluorooctanesulfonate and related fluorochemicals in human blood from several countries

Perfluorooctanesulfonyl fluoride based compounds have been used in a wide variety of consumer products, such as carpets, upholstery, and textiles. These compounds degrade to perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS), a persistent metabolite that accumulates in tissues of humans and wildlife. Previous studies have reported the occurrence of PFOS, perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), and perfluorooctanesulfonamide (PFOSA) in human sera collected from the United States. In this study, concentrations of PFOS, PFHxS, PFOA, and PFOSA were measured in 473 human blood/serum/plasma samples collected from the United States, Colombia, Brazil, Belgium, Italy, Poland, India, Malaysia, and Korea. Among the four perfluorochemicals measured, PFOS was the predominant compound found in blood. Concentrations of PFOS were the highest in the samples collected from the United States and Poland (>30 ng/mL); moderate in Korea, Belgium, Malaysia, Brazil, Italy, and Colombia (3 to 29 ng/mL); and lowest in India (<3 ng/mL). PFOA was the next most abundant perfluorochemical in blood samples, although the frequency of occurrence of this compound was relatively low. No age- or gender-related differences in the concentrations of PFOS and PFOA were found in serum samples. The degree of association between the concentrations of four perfluorochemicals varied, depending on the origin of the samples. These results suggested the existence of sources with varying levels and compositions of perfluorochemicals, and differences in exposure patterns to these chemicals, in various countries. In addition to the four target fluorochemicals measured, qualitative analysis of selected blood samples showed the presence of other perfluorochemicals such as perfluorodecanesulfonate (PFDS), perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluorododecanoic acid (PFDoA), and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA) in serum samples, at concentrations approximately 5- to 10-fold lower than the concentration of PFOS. Further studies should focus on identifying sources and pathways of human exposure to perfluorochemicals.     

Perfluorooctanesulfonate and related fluorochemicals in human blood samples from China

Perfluorooctanesulfonylfluoride (POSF)-based compounds have been manufactured and used in a variety of industrial applications. These compounds degrade to perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) which is regarded as a persistent end-stage metabolite and is found to accumulate in tissues of humans and wildlife. PFOS, perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), and perfluorooctanesulfonamide (PFOSA) have been found in human sera from the United States. In this study, concentrations of PFHxS, perfluorobutanesulfonate (PFBS), PFOS, perfluorohexanoic acid (PFHxA), PFOA, perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA), perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA), perfluorododecanoic acid (PFDoDA), and PFOSA were measured in 85 samples of whole human blood collected from nine cities (eight provinces) in China, including Shenyang (Liaoning), Beijing (Hebei), Zhengzhou (Henan), Jintan (Jiangsu), Wuhan (Hubei), Zhoushan (Zhejiang), Guiyang (Guizhou), Xiamen (Fujian), and Fuzhou (Fujian). Among the 10 perfluorinated compounds (PFCs) measured, PFOS was the predominant compound. The mean concentration of PFOS was greatest in samples collected from Shenyang (79.2 ng/mL) and least in samples from Jintan (3.72 ng/mL). PFHxS was the next most abundant perfluorochemical in the samples. No age-related differences in the concentrations of PFOA, PFOS, PFOSA, and PFHxS were observed. Gender-related differences were found,with males higher for PFOS and PFHxS, and females higher in PFUnDA. Concentrations of PFHxS were positively correlated with those of PFOS, while concentrations of PFNA, PFDA, and PFUnDA were positively correlated with those of PFOA. There were differences in the concentration profiles (percentage composition) of various PFCs in the samples among the nine cities.     

Changes in endocrine profile and reproductive organs during puberty in the male marmoset monkey (Callithrix jacchus)

Data on pubertal maturation in male marmoset, a model for human reproduction, are scant and conflicting. We collected data on novel parameters to characterize puberty. Twenty-five marmoset monkeys were assigned to five age groups by weeks (wk): 21 (pre-pubertal), 43 (onset of puberty), 52 (fully pubertal), 70 (mature), and 116 (fully adult). Serum and intratesticular testosterone and pituitary bioactive chorionic gonadotropin (bioCG) were measured. Testicular development was assessed by ultrasonography, histology, and flow cytometry. Three consecutive blood samples revealed extreme fluctuations in testosterone concentrations, suggesting an erratic secretion. Age-related changes in serum testosterone and pituitary bioCG concentrations were observed. Intratesticular androgens (ITAs) showed high fluctuations within groups at all ages and were high in some animals by 21 wk. Unexpectedly, no correlation between pituitary bioCG and serum testosterone or ITAs was found, but these parameters significantly correlated with testicular weight and volume. These observations were consistent a dependence on the testis growth on bioCG. Unfortunately, the low serum levels of bioCG were not measurable in this study. At 43 wk, the animals reached puberty. At 52 wk of age, animals attained maximum body and epididymal weights and qualitatively normal spermatogenesis, but testes continued growing, reaching a maximum of all parameters at 70 wk of age, without further major changes at the age of 116 wk. It is concluded that (1) gonadal activation is evident at wk 21, (2) the male marmoset reaches the pubertal threshold around 43 wk of age, attains qualitative parameters at 52 wk, matures further to sexual maturity at 70 wk, and (3) serum testosterone and ITAs are highly variable without any identifiable correlation with pituitary bioCG.     

江西省畜禽产品中全氟辛酸和全氟辛烷磺酸污染情况调查与分析

为了探索江西省畜禽产品中全氟辛酸（perfluorooctanoic acid,PFOA）和全氟辛烷磺酸（perfluorooctanesulfonate,PFOS）的污染现状,采用超高效液相色谱-三重四极杆串联质谱对江西省5 个畜禽主产市市售猪、鸡、鸭各组织（n=260）样品中PFOS和PFOA的污染水平进行了分析。结果表明：以湿质量计算可知,鸡血中PFOA的污染水平最高,为0.52 ng/g,其次为猪肝（0.24 ng/g）,然后依次为鸡肝（0.14 ng/g）、鸭血（0.12 ng/g）、鸭肝（0.029 ng/g）,猪肉、鸡肉、鸭肉和猪血中均未检出PFOA的污染;PFOS仅在猪肝中检出,其均值为0.20 ng/g。对人体健康风险评价结果显示,江西省猪、鸡和鸭各组织中PFOA和PFOS不会对人体健康造成即时危害。     

Serum concentrations of 11 polyfluoroalkyl compounds in the u.s. population: data from the national health and nutrition examination survey (NHANES)

We measured the concentrations of 11 polyfluoroalkyl compounds (PFCs), including perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), and perfluorohexane sulfonic acid (PFHxS) in 1562 serum samples collected from a representative U.S. population 12 years of age and older in the 1999-2000 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey. Participants represented both sexes, three race/ethnicities (non-Hispanic blacks, non-Hispanic whites, and Mexican-Americans), and four age categories (12-19 years, 20-39 years, 40-59 years, and 60 years and older). PFCs were extracted from 100 microL of serum using on-line solid-phase extraction coupled to isotope dilution-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry; limits of detection ranged from 0.05 to 0.2 ng/ mL. PFOS, PFOA, PFHxS, and perfluorooctane sulfonamide were detected in all samples analyzed; 2-(N-ethyl-perfluorooctane sulfonamido) acetic acid, 2-(N-methyl-perfluorooctane sulfonamido) acetic acid, and perfluorononanoic acid were detected in more than 90% of samples, which suggests prevalent exposures to several PFCs in the U.S. population. The concentrations of most PFCs were similar regardless of the participants' ages but were higher in males than in females. Mexican Americans had lower concentrations than non-Hispanic blacks and non-Hispanic whites, whose concentrations were similar. Higher education was associated with higher concentrations of PFOS and PFOA. These data will serve as a nationally representative baseline of the U.S. population's exposure to PFCs to which other populations can be compared, and will play an important role in public health by helping set research priorities, ranging from health effects studies to defining sources and pathways of exposure.     

Perfluorooctanesulfonate and related fluorochemicals in albatrosses, elephant seals, penguins, and polar skuas from the Southern Ocean

Perfluorinated chemicals (PFCs) have been used as surfactants in industrial and commercial products for over 50 years. Earlier studies of the geographical distribution of PFCs focused primarily on the Northern Hemisphere, while little attention was paid to the Southern Hemisphere. In this study, livers from eight species of albatrosses, blood from elephant seal, and blood and eggs from penguins and polar skua collected from the Southern Ocean and the Antarctic during 1995-2005 were analyzed for 10 PFCs. In addition, for comparison with the Southern Ocean samples, we analyzed liver, sera, and eggs from two species of albatrosses from Midway Atoll in the North Pacific Ocean. Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) were found in livers of albatrosses from the Southern Ocean. PFOS was the major contaminant, although the concentrations were <5 ng/g, wet wt, in 92% of the albatross livers analyzed. PFOA was detected in 30% of the albatross livers, with a concentration range of <0.6-2.45 ng/g,wet wt. Other PFCs, including long-chain perfluorocarboxylates (PFCAs), were below the limits of quantitation in livers of albatrosses from the Southern Ocean. In liver, sera, and eggs of albatrosses from the North Pacific Ocean, long-chain PFCAs (perfluorononanoate, perfluorodecanoate, perfluoroundecanoate, and perfluorododecanoate) were found at concentrations similar to those of PFOS and PFOA. The mean concentration of PFOS in livers of Laysan albatrosses from the North Pacific Ocean (5.1 ng/g, wet wt) was higher than that in several species of albatrosses from the Southern Ocean (2.2 ng/g, wetwt). Species-specific differences in the concentrations of PFOS were noted among Southern Ocean albatrosses, whereas geographical differences in PFOS concentrations among the Indian Ocean, South Pacific Ocean, and South Atlantic Ocean were insignificant. Concentrations of PFOS and PFOA were, respectively, 2- and 17-fold higher in liver than in sera of Laysan albatrosses. PFOS was found in the blood of elephant seals from Antarctica at concentrations ranging from <0.08 to 3.52 ng/mL. PFOS was found in eggs (2.1-3.1 ng/g) and blood (<0.24-1.4 ng/ mL) of polar skuas but was not detected in penguins from Antarctica. Our study documents the existence of low but detectable levels of PFOS and PFOA in Southern Hemisphere fauna, suggesting distribution of these compounds on a global scale.     

Human donor liver and serum concentrations of perfluorooctanesulfonate and other perfluorochemicals

Perfluorooctanesulfonate (PFOS, CaF17SO3-) has been identified in the serum of nonoccupationally exposed humans and in serum and liver tissue in wildlife. The purpose of this investigation was to determine whether PFOS liver concentrations in humans are comparable to the approximate 30 ng/mL average serum concentrations reported in nonoccupationally exposed subjects. Thirty-one donors (16 male and 15 female, age range 5-74) provided serum and/or liver samples for analysis of PFOS and three other fluorochemicals: perfluorosulfonamide (PFOSA, C8F17SO2NH2), perfluorooctanoate (PFOA, C7F15CO2-), and perfluorohexanesulfonate (PFHxS, C6F13SO3-). Both sera and liver samples were extracted by ion-pair extraction and quantitatively assayed using high-performance liquid chromatography electrospray tandem mass spectrometry. Liver PFOS concentrations ranged from <4.5 ng/g (limit of quantitation, LOQ)to 57.0 ng/g. Serum PFOS concentrations ranged from <6.1 ng/mL (LOQ) to 58.3 ng/mL. Among the 23 paired samples, the mean liver to serum ratio was 1.3:1 (95% confidence interval 0.9:1-1.7:1). This liver to serum ratio is comparable to that reported in a toxicological study of cynomolgus monkeys, which had liver and serum concentrations 2-3 orders of magnitude higher than observed in these human donors. This information may be useful in human risk characterization for PFOS. Liver to serum ratios were not estimated for PFOA, PFHxS, and PFOSA as 90% of the human donor liver samples were determined to be less than the LOQ.     

Perfluorinated compounds in the Cape Fear Drainage Basin in North Carolina

Concern over perfluorinated organic compounds (PFCs), e.g., perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA), is due to a number of recent studies which show that the PFCs are persistent, bioaccumulative, and toxic in animals. Despite sustained interest in this topic, little information is available concerning the environmental distributions of the compounds. In this study, a new method was developed for the analysis of 10 target PFCs and its performance was examined in a systematic evaluation of surface water in the Cape Fear River Basin in North Carolina. One hundred samples from 80 different locations were collected during the spring of 2006. Detectable levels of the target PFCs were found in all samples, and were comparable to values reported previously, with maximum PFOS at 132 ng/L, PFOA at 287 ng/L, perfluorononanoic acid (C9) at 194 ng/L, and perfluoroheptanoic acid (C7) at 329 ng/L. In general, the lowest concentrations of the PFCs were found in the smallest tributaries while the highest levels were found in middle reaches of the Drainage Basin. Variability of PFC concentrations suggests a series of source inputs throughout the Basin. Seventeen sample sites (22%) had PFOS concentrations greater than 43 ng/L, a conservative safe water concentration estimated to be protective of avian life. In addition, a total of 26 sites (32%) had PFOA concentrations above 40 ng/L.     

Investigation into perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in a cranberry bog: method development and sampling results

ABSTRACT

The contamination of groundwater and surface water from previous uses of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs), particularly products containing the contaminants perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) and perfluorooctanoate (PFOA), has become a concern for drinking water and as a potential exposure route to the food supply. In 2016, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) was asked to investigate a bog in Massachusetts where the surface water was believed to be contaminated with PFASs. As a result, a method was developed for the analysis of PFASs in cranberries, and water and fruit from the affected bog were evaluated. A QuEChERS method was developed and validated for PFOA, PFOS, and six additional shorter-chain PFASs. Method recoveries ranged from 60% to 115% for validation spikes performed at 10, 20 and 40 ng g^?1 and method detection limits ranged from 0.2 to 5.6 ng g^?1. Bog water samples were analysed using Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) method 537 for PFOA, PFOS and four additional short-chain PFASs. Surface water concentrations for PFOS ranged from 16 to 122 ng L^?1 and input water concentrations were 132 ng L^?1 and 206 ng L^?1. Of the eight water samples, seven had water concentrations that exceeded the EPA health advisory level for PFOS of 70 ng L^?1. Of the 42 cranberry samples analysed, none had detects of PFOA or PFOS above their method detection limits (0.4 and 0.5 ng g^?1, respectively), nor any of the other short-chain PFASs.     

Analysis of selected perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in beer to evaluate the effect of beer consumption on human PFAS exposure: a pilot study

This report describes the development of a method for the determination and quantification of perfluoroalkyl substances (PFASs) in beer. A total of 93 beer samples were analyzed for the presence of PFASs by means of liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The results of this study have made it possible to calculate possible PFAS uptake via beer as well as the potential PFAS-related health risk as a result of beer consumption with regard to the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of perfluoro-n-octanoic acid (PFOA) (1,500 ng/kg bodyweight and day) and perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS) (150 ng/kg bodyweight and day). PFOS concentrations above the limit of quantification were detected in 50 % of the samples. The highest PFOS concentration detected in any of the beers was 18.4 ng/L, and the highest PFOA concentration was 56.9 ng/L. The calculated maximum uptake of both substances for which a TDI level exists were 2.44 ng/kg bodyweight/day for PFOA and 0.79 ng/kg bodyweight/day for PFOS assuming that an adult consumed his/her total daily liquid uptake exclusively by drinking 3 L of beer, equivalent to the maximum measured concentration (worst-case scenario). In regard to the model calculations made here, the maximum uptake of PFOA and PFOS via consumption of beer can be considered negligible at 0.85 % of the concentration that would be required to reach the TDI for PFOS and 0.16 % for PFOA.