Determination of heat of transformation in a cold-rolled martensitic tini alloy

We studied the heat of transformation, ΔH, in martensitic transformations in a cold-rolled equiatomic TiNi alloy with differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), X-ray diffraction (XRD), and microhardness measurements. Results of our experiment indicate that the martensite stabilization and stress-induced parent (SIP)B2 phase are introduced when the TiNi martensite is cold rolled at room temperature. The SIP formation seems to be related to the lattice softening phenomenon occurring in the martensite, while the ΔH value of the first reverse martensitic transformation decreases enormously for the cold-rolled equiatomic TiNi alloy. We are proposing possible explanations for these results: (1) the occurrence of SIP, which reduces the transformable martensite volume; (2) the release of accumulated elastic energy induced by the cold rolling; and (3) the recovery of defects induced by cold rolling and release of the heat of recovery. We also found that the retained dislocations can depress the martensitic transformation temperatures and induce the R-phase transformation after the occurrence of the first reverse martensitic transformation. Formerly Graduate Student, Institute of Materials Science and Engineering, National Taiwan University     

Martensitic stabilization and defects induced by deformation in TiNi shape memory alloys

Martensitic stabilization caused by deformation in a TiNi shape memory alloy was studied.Special attention was paid to the deformed microstructures to identify the cause of martensitic stabilization.Martensitic stabilization was demonstrated by differential scanning calorimetry for the tensioned TiNi shape memory alloy.Transmission electron microscopy revealed that antiphase boundaries were formed because of the fourfold dissociation of[110]B19'super lattice dislocations and were preserved after reverse transformation due to the lattice correspondence.Martensitic stabilization was attributed to dislocations induced by deformation,which reduced the ordering degree of the microstructure,spoiled the reverse path from martensite to parent phase compared with thermoelastic transformation,and imposed resistance on phase transformation through the stress field.     

冷变形工艺对SUS301L不锈钢组织性能的影响

对亚稳定奥氏体不锈钢SUS301L进行了不同变形量的冷轧,并分别用X射线衍射仪和MP30铁素体测量仪测出了应变诱导马氏体及其含量.采用金相显微镜观察了试样的组织演变.研究结果表明:形变马氏体在剪切带的交叉点形核,新晶核的不断形成促使了形变马氏体的长大；形变马氏体随着冷轧压下量的增加而增加；另外,抗拉强度和硬度的增加幅度相当；平均抗拉强度与平均显微硬度的比值在2.82～3.17之间.     

301奥氏体不锈钢薄板拉伸强度与冷轧硬度之间的关系

 为对冷轧不锈钢薄板的产品硬度控制提供指导,尝试用一个新的方法来取代试轧,既达到控制冷轧板硬度的目的,又能降低成本、提高效率。对099mm厚的经过退火的301奥氏体不锈钢薄板进行冷轧减薄,并进行室温拉伸试验,测量其维氏硬度。通过观察金相和利用X射线衍射,验证了应变诱导马氏体相变是导致301奥氏体不锈钢冷轧和拉伸时产生加工硬化的主要原因。试验结果表明,冷轧和拉伸有着相似的加工硬化趋势,综合拉伸与轧制试验数据,确定了拉伸强度与冷轧硬度之间的关系,实现了通过拉伸强度来得到对应应变下的冷轧硬度,具有很好的预见性。冷轧可以提高301不锈钢的强度和硬度,显著改善其力学性能。     

Transformation relaxation and aging in a CuZnAl shape-memory alloy studied by modulated differential scanning calorimetry

The reverse martensitic transformation and aging processes in a polycrystalline Cu-23.52 at. pct Zn-9.65 at. pct Al shape-memory alloy have been studied using the recently developed modulated differential scanning calorimetry (MDSC) technique, and some new findings are obtained. By separating the nonreversing heat flow from the reversing heat flow, MDSC can better characterize the thermodynamic, kinetic, and hysteretic features of thermoelastic martensitic transformations. Two kinds of exothermal relaxation peaks have been identified and separated from the endothermal reverse martensitic transformation: one is associated with the movement of twin interfaces or martensite-parent interfaces, and another is due to the atomic reordering in the parent phase via a vacancy mechanism. The martensite aging processes have been examined, and two stages of the aging process been distinguished: the first stage of aging is characterized by the stabilization of martensite, as manifested in the increase in the reversing enthalpy of the reverse martensitic transformation and in the transformation temperatures, and the second stage is, in fact, the decomposition of the martensite on prolonged aging, accompanied by a decrease in the transformation enthalpy. The results suggest that the mechanisms of the relaxation in the martensite and in the parent phase may be quite different.     

The stabilization of martensite in Cu-Zn-AI shape memory alloys

The martensitic transformation temperature in shape memory alloys can be affected differently by aging above and below the transformation temperature. Under such circumstances the normally reversible transformation can be prevented and the martensite structure “stabilized”. This effect has been studied using electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and mechanical testing. Evidence is given of an apparently martensitic high temperature transformation, and a careful comparison is made of the stabilized and unstabilized states of the alloy. Three possible models for stabilization are considered in the light of the results obtained, and it is concluded that no single mechanism can be responsible for all the phenomena observed. Formerly with the Department of Metallurgy and Materials Science, University of Cambridge, England     

Martensitic Transformation During Cold Rolling Deformation of an Austenitic Fe-26Mn-0.14C Alloy

A high-Mn austenitic steel was deformed in cold rolling to study the martensitic transformation and microstructure using X-ray diffraction and electron backscatter diffraction. Despite heavy deformation of 70 pct reduction (1.2 true strain), α′-martensite could not be induced in this alloy, but about 90 pct of the austenite transformed to ε-martensite. However, a small fraction (~4 pct) of α′-martensite could be observed when the same alloy was subjected to low strain compression tests in a Gleeble simulator. The stability of ε-martensite was attributed to the increase in stacking fault energy of the steel, expected to be more than 20 mJ/m² because of the increase in temperature during the cold rolling deformation.     

TC16钛合金板材冷轧工艺及组织性能研究

进行了TC16钛合金板材多道次冷轧试制,利用光学显微镜、 扫描电镜和X射线衍射等手段研究了变形量对冷轧板材微观组织与力学性能的影响.结果表明:α+β两相TC16钛合金板材冷轧加工是可行的,其极限冷变形量达到79％,冷轧板材表面无裂纹.大幅度冷轧变形后,TC16钛合金组织为分布均匀的纤维状结构,且存在极少量未充分变形的α...     

冷轧工作辊用半高速钢的二次硬化效应

为开发冷轧工作辊用半高速钢,设计了新钢种的化学成分,研究了试验钢淬火后在回火过程中二次硬化效应及其影响因素,并初步探讨了试验钢的二次硬化机理.研究结果表明,新型半高速钢有显著的二次硬化效应,能满足冷轧工作辊的硬度要求;随Mo、V和Si等合金元素含量升高钢的二次硬度升高,随淬火温度升高钢的二次硬度出现两次峰值.二次硬化效应与残余奥氏体在回火过程中转变为马氏体和马氏体基体中析出细小弥散的Mo2C和VC有关.     

Microstructure and martensitic transformations in a dual-phase α/β Cu−Zn alloy

The martensitic transformations in a dual-phase α/β Cu−Zn shape-memory alloy, containing 15 pct by volume of α particles, were studied during subcooling and deformation. The crystal structure and characteristics of the martensitic transformation of a dual-phase Cu−Zn alloy were found to be similar to those of a single-phase alloy. Both the thermal martensite formed by subcooling and the stress-induced martensite (SIM) formed by loading possessed an M9R long-period stacking-order (LPSO) structure, with internal stacking faults on the (001) basal plane. Upon subcooling, the α particles were deformed in order to accommodate the shape strain accompanying the martensitic transformation. Although most of them are deformed by slip, deformation twins have, nevertheless, been found in a few α particles. Upon loading, the SIM with an M9R structure nucleates and grows at a given temperature; subsequently, another martensite phase (α_S) possessing an fct structure is formed, with a shear developing on the basal plane of the initial M9R SIM during further loading. However, during unloading, both the α_S and SIM are transformed and follow the reverse sequence back to the parent phase. However, some residual SIM and α_S were found at zero load, due to a constraint effect of the deformed α particles and grain boundaries. The α_S martensite may be formed by two intersecting plates of SIM or by advanced deformation on a single plate of SIM. In addition to the residual SIM and α_S martensite, an α_S lamellar martensite was found in the deformed specimen.     

Prediction of Indentation Behavior of Superelastic TiNi

Superelastic TiNi shape memory alloys have been extensively used in various applications. The great interest in TiNi alloys is due to its unique shape memory and superelastic effects, along with its superior wear and dent resistance. Assessment of mechanical properties and dent resistance of superelastic TiNi is commonly performed using indentation techniques. However, the coupling of deformation and reversible martensitic transformation of TiNi under indentation conditions makes the interpretation of results challenging. An attempt is made to enhance current interpretation of indentation data. A load-depth curve is predicted that takes into consideration the reversible martensitic transformation. The predicted curve is in good agreement with experimental results. It is found in this study that the elastic modulus is a function of indentation depth. At shallow depths, the elastic modulus is high due to austenite dominance, while at high depths, the elastic modulus drops as the depth increases due to austenite to martensite transition, i.e., martensite dominance. It is also found that TiNi exhibits superior dent resistance compared to AISI 304 steel. There is two orders of magnitude improvement in dent resistance of TiNi in comparison to AISI 304 steel.     

Shape memory behaviour associated with the R and martensitic transformations in a NiTi alloy

The deformation and transformation behaviour associated with both the R and martensitic transformations in a near equiatomic NiTi alloy has been investigated using thermal cycling tests under constant applied load. Strain measurements exhibit separate stages of yielding associated with the R and martensitic transformations. The transformation sequence during cooling is found to depend on the applied stress, resulting from the differing stress dependencies of the R and martensitic transformation temperatures. Strain, resistivity, and DSC measurements indicate that the B2 → R transformation is characterised by a highly reversible single stage, first order reaction. Repeated thermal cycling resulted in irreversible changes to both the transformation temperatures and strains associated with the martensitic transformation.     

Group theory and crystallography of the martensitic transformation in a Cu-26.71Zn-4.15Al shape memory alloy

A study of the crystallography of the martensitic transformation in a Cu-26.71Zn-4.15Al shape memory alloy by means of group theory is presented. The habit plane of the martensite calculated from the phenomenological crystallographic theory of martensitic transformations proposed by W-L-R is found to be (−1, 7.55, 7.83) assuming a model of B2 (parent) to modified 9R monoclinic structure (martensite) which is quite consistent with that of experimental results (−1,7,8). From group theory we have obtained the irreducible representation and the 24 martensite variants associated with the martensitic transformation in this alloy system. A self-accommodating group is found to be D_2k and the symmetry in one and the set of self-accommodating groups is analyzed. The results show that group theory may be an important tool for the study of martensitic transformations.     

Plastic straining effects on the microstructure of a Ti-rich NiTi shape memory alloy

A Ni-52 at. pct Ti shape memory alloy, cold drawn to 30 pct, was annealed at 1173 K for 1 hour, water quenched, and then subjected to differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). No evidence of the premartensiticR transformation was found during either the forward or the reverse transformation. Microstructurally, it was found that the alloy possessed a relatively large volume fraction (∼0.05) of coarse second-phase brittle particles. These precipitates acted as preferential sites for martensite plate nucleation and gave rise to a “starlike” morphology. The tensile and compressive properties of the alloy in the as-received condition were also investigated. The alloy exhibited relatively good ductility (fracture strain=0.28), which was attributed to its inherent ability to relieve or delay the development of plastic instabilities through rapid strain hardening. In addition, X-ray diffraction (XRD) of deformed specimens indicated the presence of an extraintensity peak corresponding to the B2 phase (110)_B2 when the alloy was plastically deformed in compression. Accordingly, it is suggested that plastic deformation induces the reverse transformation to the B2 phase in highly stressed local regions. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of deformed martensite structures showed slip lines probably due to dislocation slip, as well as variant interpenetration. Besides, optical and scanning microscopy of regions adjacent to the fractured surfaces indicated that fine martensite plates and/or “apparent” new grains develop at regions of prior stress intensification (former crack-tip regions) during crack propagation.     

The effects of applied stress on the martensitic transformation in TiNi

The deformation behavior of TiNi at 20°C has been investigated as a function of composition and of the prior heat treatment. Wide mechanical property variation and significant differences between the effects of tensile and of compressive loading were observed. Under some conditions anelastic behavior, characterized by a broad hysteresis loop, was reproducibly obtained. The effects of heating the deformed materials aboveA _f on the subsequent stress-strain behavior indicate the anomalies observed to be directly related to the martensitic transformation. The effects of stress application on the martensitic transformation are discussed. It is shown that, under some conditions, the stress-assisted transformation structures may be unstable on the removal of the stress. At test temperatures outside theM _f toA _f range, this can result in anelastic behavior. More complex behavior expected at temperaturesM _f < T < A_f, is discussed in some detail. It is shown that both the anelastic behavior and the “shape memory” can be accounted for by the effects of applied stress. It is also shown that the mechanical properties in this temperature range can vary markedly with the prior heat treatment, even at temperatures not normally considered of significance. Though based on observations made on TiNi, the phenomena discussed are inherent in materials undergoing a martensitic transformation over a narrow range of temperatures.     

Plastic straining effects on the microstructure of a Ti-rich NiTi shape memory alloy

A Ni-52 at. pct Ti shape memory alloy, cold drawn to 30 pct, was annealed at 1173 K for 1 hour, water quenched, and then subjected to differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). No evidence of the premartensitic R transformation was found during either the forward or the reverse transformation. Microstructurally, it was found that the alloy possessed a relatively large volume fraction (∼0.05) of coarse second-phase brittle particles. These precipitates acted as preferential sites for martensite plate nucleation and gave rise to a “starlike” morphology. The tensile and compressive properties of the alloy in the as-received condition were also investigated. The alloy exhibited relatively good ductility (fracture strain = 0.28), which was attributed to its inherent ability to relieve or delay the development of plastic instabilities through rapid strain hardening. In addition, X-ray diffraction (XRD) of deformed specimens indicated the presence of an extraintensity peak corresponding to the B2 phase (110)_B2 when the alloy was plastically deformed in compression. Accordingly, it is suggested that plastic deformation induces the reverse transformation to the B2 phase in highly stressed local regions. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) of deformed martensite structures showed slip lines probably due to dislocation slip, as well as variant interpenetration. Besides, optical and scanning microscopy of regions adjacent to the fractured surfaces indicated that fine martensite plates and/or “apparent” new grains develop at regions of prior stress intensification (former crack-tip regions) during crack propagation.     

Dent Resistance and Effect of Indentation Loading Rate on Superelastic TiNi Alloy

The large recoverable deformation associated with reversible stress-induced martensitic transformation for superelastic TiNi alloys has been widely exploited in many applications. However, to employ superelastic TiNi in applications where high impact loading is expected, as in bearings, the effect of loading rate on superelasticity needs to be understood. In the current article, the effect of indentation loading rate on dent resistance and superelasticity of TiNi is studied. Indentation tests are performed, at different loading rates on superelastic TiNi alloy and correlated to tensile stress–strain data. It is found that the reversible deformation drops as loading rate is increased and superelasticity diminishes. Based on data collected and results analysis it is proposed that the loss in superelastic behavior under high indentation loading rate is related to retardation of the stress-induced martensitic transformation. Furthermore, a simple heat model was proposed and showed that the temperature rise during indentation is not significant.     

Effect of hot rolling on the structure and the mechanical properties of nitrogen-bearing austenitic–martensitic 14Kh15AN4M steel

The effect of the rolling temperature and strain on the structure and the properties of corrosionresistant austenitic–martensitic 14Kh15AN4M steel is studied. The steel is shown to exhibit high ductility: upon rolling in the temperature range 700–1100°C at a reduction per pass up to 80%, wedge steel specimens are uniformly deformed along and across the rolling direction without cracking and other surface defects. Subsequent cold treatment and low-temperature tempering ensure a high hardness of the steel (50–56 HRC). Austenite mainly contributes to the hardening upon rolling in the temperature range 700–800°C at a reduction of 50–70%, and martensite makes the main contribution at higher temperatures and lower strains. Texture does not form under the chosen deformation conditions, which indicates dynamic recrystallization with the nucleation and growth of grains having no preferential orientation.     

The Investigation of Strain-Induced Martensite Reverse Transformation in AISI 304 Austenitic Stainless Steel

This paper presents a comprehensive study on the strain-induced martensitic transformation and reversion transformation of the strain-induced martensite in AISI 304 stainless steel using a number of complementary techniques such as dilatometry, calorimetry, magnetometry, and in-situ X-ray diffraction, coupled with high-resolution microstructural transmission Kikuchi diffraction analysis. Tensile deformation was applied at temperatures between room temperature and 213 K (−60 °C) in order to obtain a different volume fraction of strain-induced martensite (up to ~70 pct). The volume fraction of the strain-induced martensite, measured by the magnetometric method, was correlated with the total elongation, hardness, and linear thermal expansion coefficient. The thermal expansion coefficient, as well as the hardness of the strain-induced martensitic phase was evaluated. The in-situ thermal treatment experiments showed unusual changes in the kinetics of the reverse transformation (α′ → γ). The X-ray diffraction analysis revealed that the reverse transformation may be stress assisted—strains inherited from the martensitic transformation may increase its kinetics at the lower annealing temperature range. More importantly, the transmission Kikuchi diffraction measurements showed that the reverse transformation of the strain-induced martensite proceeds through a displacive, diffusionless mechanism, maintaining the Kurdjumov–Sachs crystallographic relationship between the martensite and the reverted austenite. This finding is in contradiction to the results reported by other researchers for a similar alloy composition.

     

Ultrafine Structure and High Strength in Cold-Rolled Martensite

Structural refinement by cold rolling (10 to 80?pct reductions) of interstitial free (IF) steel containing Mn and B has been investigated from samples with different initial structures: (a) lath martensite, (b) coarse ferrite (grain size 150???m), and (c) fine ferrite (22???m). Unalloyed IF steel with a coarse grain size (120???m) has also included based on a previous study. Deformation microstructures and structural parameters have been analyzed by transmission electron microscopy and electron backscatter diffraction, and mechanical properties have been characterized by hardness and tensile testing. At low to medium strains, lath martensite transforms into a cell block structure composed of cell block boundaries and cell boundaries with only a negligible change in strength. At medium to large strains, cell block structures in all samples refine with increasing strain and the hardening rate is constant (stage IV). A strong effect of the initial structure is observed on both the structural refinement and the strength increase. This effect is largest in lath martensite and smallest in unalloyed ferrite. No saturation in structural refinement and strength is observed. The discussion covers the transformation of lath martensite into a cell block structure at low to medium strains where the driving force is suggested to be a decrease in the dislocation line energy. Medium to large strain-hardening mechanisms are discussed together with structure-strength relationships assuming additive stress contributions from dislocations, boundaries, and elements in solid solution. Good agreement is found between flow stress predictions and stress values observed experimentally both in the initial undeformed martensite and in deformed samples.