Use of β-cyclodextrin to decrease the level of cholesterol in milk fat

This study was carried out to determine optimum conditions (β-cyclodextrin concentration, mixing time, and holding time) for cholesterol removal from pasteurized nonhomogenized milk at 4°C on a commercial scale by adding β-cyclodextrin in a specially designed bulk mixer tank. The β-cyclodextrin (0.4, 0.6, 0.8, and 1.0%) removed from 65.42 to 95.31% of cholesterol at 4°C in 20 min. Treatment of milk with 0.8 and 1.0% (wt/vol) β-cyclodextrin was no better than treatment with 0.6% β-cyclodextrin. Maximum cholesterol removal was seen with 6 h of treatment. The β-cyclodextrin cholesterol complex was precipitated from milk during 20 min without stirring at 4°C and removed by centrifugation. After separating the milk, approximately 0.35% of residual β-cyclodextrin remained in the skim fraction and 0.1% in the cream from milk treated with 0.6% β-cyclodextrin. The rest of the β-cyclodextrin was complexed with the cholesterol and eliminated via the discharger of the separator. Individual fatty acid and triglyceride compositions did not differ between control milk and milk treated with 0.6% β-cyclodextrin.     

The accelerated ripening of cholesterol-reduced Cheddar cheese by crosslinked β-cyclodextrin

This study was carried out to investigate the influence of salt content on cholesterol-reduced Cheddar cheese obtained by a treatment with crosslinked β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) and to find if the ripening process was accelerated in cholesterol-reduced cheese. The crosslinked β-CD used was made by adipic acid. A primary study indicated that the chemical and rheological properties were not changed by the salt addition and the composition of Cheddar cheese treated with crosslinked β-CD was similar to untreated Cheddar cheese. Approximately 91 to 92% cholesterol reduction was observed in the cheeses that were treated using β-CD. In a subsequent study, we found accelerated ripening by the crosslinked β-CD based on the productions of short-chain free fatty acids and free amino acids. In rheological properties, elasticity, cohesiveness, and gumminess scores in the cholesterol-reduced Cheddar cheese were significantly greater at 5 wk ripening than those in the control at 4 mo ripening. At the early stage of ripening, most flavor properties such as rancidity, bitterness, and off-flavor in the cholesterol-reduced cheese were greater. With ripening, however, those scores changed to similar or lower scores than those in the control. The present study indicated that the crosslinked β-CD treatment for cholesterol removal showed accelerated ripening effect on the properties of Cheddar cheese.     

Effect of β-cyclodextrin on the long-term retrogradation of rice starch

In this study, the impact of the addition of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) on long-term retrogradation of rice starch was investigated by texture profile analysis (TPA), differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), and X-ray diffraction (XRD). Results showed that the addition of β-CD presented a crucial role in retarding the long-term retrogradation of starch. The present β-CD also significantly decreased crystallization rate (k), and increased avrami exponent (n). The increase in exponent value indicated that the addition of β-CD transformed the nucleation type due to the formation of amylose–lipid-β-CD complex. Further, the presence of β-CD produced an additional peak 5.2 Å of the gelatinized gel, and retarded crystalline type of the retrograded gel from V- to B-pattern, probably corresponding for the nucleation type transformation.     

Effect of heat treatments on stability of β-lactams in milk

The presence of residues of antimicrobial substances in milk may have serious toxicological and technical consequences. To date, few studies have been done to evaluate the effect of heat treatments on β-lactam residues in milk. However, the few studies that have been conducted estimate losses of antimicrobial activity under different combinations of temperature and time using microbiological methods. The aims of this study were to calculate the kinetic parameters for the degradation of β-lactam antibiotics in milk and to develop prediction models to estimate the concentration losses of these compounds in conventional dairy heat treatments. To do so, we employed a quantitative HPLC method to calculate losses in concentrations of 10 β-lactam antibiotics in milk with different combinations of temperature and time. Increasing the temperature from 60°C to 100°C decreased the half-life of amoxicillin (372 to 50 min), ampicillin (741 to 26 min), cloxacillin (367 to 46 min), and penicillin G (382 to 43 min). These increases in temperature caused further degradation in cephalosporins, which was accompanied by a decrease in half-life times to reach very low values; for instance, 4, 5, and 6 min for cefoperazone, cephurexime, and cephapirin, respectively. Kinetic equations were applied to different heat treatments used in dairy processing. Heat treatments at high temperatures and long times (e.g., 120°C for 20 min) led to a further degradation of β-lactam antibiotics with percentages close to 100% for cefoperazone and cefuroxime. In contrast, when milk was subjected to heat treatments at lower temperatures and times (e.g., 72°C for 15 s), the degradation of β-lactam in milk did not exceed 1% for the 10 antibiotics tested.     

Effect of combined treatment of hydrolysis and polymerization with transglutaminase on β-lactoglobulin antigenicity

The effect of combined treatments of hydrolysis with different proteases, and subsequent polymerization with transglutaminase on the antigenic activity of β-Lg was studied. For the hydrolysis of β-Lg using Alcalase, Neutrase or bromelain, the reaction conditions were 3?% β-Lg and enzyme:substrate 25?U?g^?1 of protein, as was defined using factorial study. Under these conditions, the degree of hydrolysis (DH) of the hydrolysates was 12.6?% when obtained with Alcalase and approximately 4?% with Neutrase or bromelain. Post-hydrolysis polymerization did not result in an increase in molecular mass of the protein, but these samples presented a lower DH, determined by trinitrobenzenosulfonic acid (TNBS) method, suggesting that polymerization had occurred. Hydrolysis with the three enzymes reduced the β-Lg antigenicity, as evaluated by ELISA and immunoblotting analyses. The IgE-binding responses were practically null (<9?μg?mL^?1), 22.82 and 55.73?μg?mL^?1 towards the hydrolysates obtained with Alcalase, bromelain, and Neutrase, respectively. The post-hydrolysis polymerization increased or had no significant effect (P?≥?0.05) on the antigenic response of the hydrolysates.     

High pressure homogenization increases the in vitro bioaccessibility of α- and β-carotene in carrot emulsions but not of lycopene in tomato emulsions

Abstract: The correlation between food microstructure and in vitro bioaccessibility of carotenes was evaluated for tomato and carrot emulsions (5% olive oil) subjected to high pressure homogenization (HPH) at varying degrees of intensity. The aim was to investigate whether additional mechanical disruption of the food matrix could be utilized to further increase the carotene bioaccessibility of an already pre‐processed material. The carotene bioaccessibility of the samples was measured after simulated in vitro digestion, carotene release to the oil phase was estimated by Confocal Raman spectroscopy and, to measure active uptake of carotenes, Caco‐2 cells were incubated with the digesta of selected samples. HPH did not notably affect the retention of carotenes or ascorbic acid but significantly increased both the release and micellar incorporation of α‐ and β‐carotene in carrot emulsions 1.5‐ to 1.6‐fold. On the other hand, in vitro bioaccessibility of lycopene from tomato was not increased by HPH under any of the conditions investigated. Instead, the results suggested that lycopene bioaccessibility was limited by a combination of the low solubility of lycopene in dietary lipids and entrapment in the cellular network. Carotene uptake by Caco‐2 cells appeared to be mainly dependent upon the carotene concentration of the digesta, but cis‐trans isomerization had a significant impact on the micellarization efficiency of carotenes. We therefore conclude that HPH is an interesting option for increasing the bioaccessibility of carotenes from fruits and vegetables while maintaining a high nutrient content, but that the results will depend on both food source and type of carotene. Practical Application: A better understanding of the correlation between the processing of fruits and vegetables, microstructure and nutrient bioaccessibility can be directly applied in the production of food products with an increased nutritional value.     

Effect of therapeutic administration of β-lactam antibiotics on the bacterial community and antibiotic resistance patterns in milk

Dairy cows with mastitis are frequently treated with antibiotics. The potential effect of antibiotics on the milk microbiome is still not clear. Therefore, the objective of this research was to investigate the effect of 2 commonly used cephalosporins on the milk microbiota of dairy cows and the antibiotic resistance genes in the milk. The milk samples were collected from 7 dairy cows at the period before medication (d 0), medication (d 1, 2, 3), withdrawal period (d 4, 6, 8), and the period after withdrawal (d 9, 11, 13, 15). We applied 16S rRNA sequencing to explore the microbiota changes, and antibiotic resistance patterns were investigated by quantitative PCR. The microbiota richness and diversity in each sample were calculated using the Chao 1 (richness), Shannon (diversity), and Simpson (diversity) indices. The cephalosporins treatment lowered the Simpson diversity value at the period of withdrawal. Members of the Enterobacter genera were the most affected bacteria associated with mastitis. Meanwhile, antibiotic resistance genes in the milk were also influenced by antibiotic treatment. The cephalosporins treatment raised the proportion of bla_TEM in milk samples at the period of withdrawal. Therefore, the treatment of cephalosporins led to change in the milk microbiota and increase of β-lactam resistance gene in the milk at the time of withdrawal period.     

Effect of glucono-δ-lactone and κ-carrageenan combined with high pressure treatment on the physico-chemical properties of restructured pork

In this study, response surface methodology (RSM) was used to evaluate the combined effects of NaCl, glucono-δ-lactone (GdL), and κ-carrageenan concentration (0.25%, 0.5%, and 0.75%) on the binding properties of restructured pork under hydrostatic pressure. All the generated RSM models showed no lack-of-fit and significance at the 0.001 level. The addition of both NaCl and GdL had a significant effect on color. A significant decrease in pH was shown when the GdL level increased, and subsequently led to a decrease in WHC. However, increasing the GdL level increased the binding strength. Therefore, the results indicate that a reduction in the NaCl level during meat restructuring, under pressure treatment, can be achieved by using GdL; and even a low GdL concentration allows for palatable binding properties in meat restructuring when κ-carrageenan is added.     

Flaxseed oil – Whey protein isolate emulsions: Effect of high pressure homogenization

The effect of high-pressure homogenization (20–100 MPa) and the number of homogenization cycles (1–7) on the stability of flaxseed oil - whey protein isolate emulsions was evaluated. All the emulsions were stable to creaming for at least 9 d of storage. An increase in homogenization pressure from 20 to 80 MPa and number of passes through the homogenizer up to 3, decreased the mean droplet size of the O/W emulsions despite the higher polydispersity. Emulsions homogenized at lower pressures (20 MPa) showed a monomodal distribution of the particles, whereas, an increase in pressure to 80 MPa led to a bimodal distribution, indicating droplets coalescence. High-pressure homogenization (80 MPa) and an increase in the number of homogenization cycles, led to the formation of high molecular weight aggregates (>200 kDa), which favored an increase in viscosity of the emulsions. The increase in homogenization pressure also increased the formation of primary oxidation products, which could be explained by the increase in temperature and in the surface area of the droplets.     

Design of a combined process for the inactivation of Salmonella Enteritidis in liquid whole egg at 55°C

This paper is an evaluation of the lethal effectiveness of a successive application of pulsed electric fields (PEFs) and heat treatment in liquid whole egg (LWE) in the presence of different additives on the population of Salmonella serovar Enteritidis. Synergistic reductions of the Salmonella Enteritidis population were observed when LWE samples containing additives were treated with PEF (25 kV/cm; 100 and 200 kJ/kg), heat (55 °C), or PEF followed by heat. The presence of additives, such as 10 mM EDTA or 2% triethyl citrate, increased the PEF lethality 1 log?? cycle and generated around 1.5 log?? cycles of cell damage, resulting in the reduction of undamaged cells of 4.4 and 3.1 log?? cycles, respectively. The application of PEF followed by heat treatment significantly (p < 0.05) reduced D(55 oC) from 3.9 ± 0.2 min in LWE to 1.40 ± 0.06 min or 0.24 ± 0.02 min in the presence of 10 mM EDTA or 2% triethyl citrate, respectively. A PEF treatment of 25 kV/cm and 200 kJ/kg followed by a heat treatment of 55 °C and 2 min reduced more than 8 log?? cycles of the population of Salmonella Enteritidis in LWE combined with 2% triethyl citrate, with a minimal impact on its protein soluble content. The heat sensitizing effect of PEF treatments in the presence of 2% triethyl citrate on the Salmonella population could enable LWE producers to reduce the temperature or processing time of thermal treatments (current standards are 60 °C for 3.5 min in the United States), increasing the level of Salmonella inactivation and retaining the quality of non-treated LWE.     

Heat-induced interactions of β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin with the casein micelle in pH-adjusted skim milk

Skim milks, adjusted to pH 6.48, 6.60 or 6.83, were heated for various temperature–time combinations in a pilot-scale ultra-high temperature (UHT) plant. Heat-treated samples were ultracentrifuged and their supernatants analysed by quantitative polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis in order to measure the extent of β-lactoglobulin (β-lg) and α-lactalbumin (α-la) denaturation and their subsequent association with the casein micelle. The activation energy of β-lg denaturation decreased as the pH increased. In contrast, there was no apparent trend for α-la. The extent of β-lg and α-la association with the micelle increased with heating time and temperature. The association of both proteins with the micelle was markedly affected by the milk pH. The rate and extent of association were greatest at pH 6.48, and least at pH 6.83. α-La continued to associate with the micelle although most of the β-lg had already associated. It was possible that α-la interacted at the micelle surface with β-lg that had previously associated with the micelle. A pseudo-first-order mathematical model was used to calculate the apparent rate constant for β-lg association with the micelle.     

Preparation,characterisation and activity of the inclusion complex of paeonol with β-cyclodextrin

The inclusion complex of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) and paeonol (2′-hydroxy-4′-methoxyacetophenone, PAE) was synthesised and characterised by thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA) and two-dimensional rotating frame spectroscopy (2D ROESY). The antioxidant activity and tyrosinase inhibition activity were also studied. The TGA results indicated that the thermal stability of PAE was improved when it was included with β-CD. Based on the 2D ROESY analysis, an inclusion structure of the PAE–β-CD complex was proposed, in which PAE penetrated β-CD in a tilted manner due to the interaction of intermolecular hydrogen bonds between PAE and β-CD. The complex of PAE with β-CD increased the antioxidant activity and tyrosinase-inhibiting activity of PAE.     

Effect of β-cyclodextrin addition on quality of precooked vacuum packed potatoes

The usefulness of β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) in enhancing the food and nutritional quality of precooked potatoes was studied. After blanching, potato slices (Solanum tuberosum var. Agata) were cooled. This was followed by dipping in solutions containing β-CD, ascorbic and citric acids, either alone or in combination with β-CD, and vacuum packaging in pouches. The potatoes were pasteurised/precooked and cooled. These samples were then analyzed for colour parameters, microbial count, Resistant Starch (RS) concentration, fat content after a frying test immediately and after 7, 14 and 28 days of storage at 4 °C. Results showed that dipping with β-CD gave the lightest colour (ΔL*) and a more attractive appearance. However, growth of aerobic mesophilic bacteria was observed in samples dipping in solutions with β-CD alone. From the nutritional point of view, the effect of β-CD on the RS content of potatoes may be related to storage time.     

Role of β-lactoglobulin in the fouling of stainless steel surfaces by heated milk

Fouling occurred in sudden expansion (SE) test pieces in holding tubes downstream of a direct steam injection (DSI) heater. The fouling deposit contained high levels of protein, mainly β-lactoglobulin, and fat. Fouling during a run was monitored using heat flux sensors to determine the local fouling rate. The overall fouling rate was determined after a run from the weight of deposit and the overall time that fouling occurred during a run. Local and overall fouling rates were correlated. Fouling was high in SEs close to the DSI heater and diminished in SEs placed further downstream. The fouling rate was correlated with the level of native β-lactoglobulin remaining at the position of the SE. It is proposed that the fouling was due to a reactive intermediate of β-lactoglobulin that interacted with deposits on the SE surface. The considerable variation in fouling rates between runs suggests other environmental factors are also important.     

Effect of Sicilian pasture feeding management on content of α-tocopherol and β-carotene in cow milk

This study was performed to evaluate α-tocopherol and β-carotene contents of pasture milk under ordinary Sicilian farming conditions. Fourteen dairy farms were allocated into 2 balanced groups on the basis of cultivated (CULT) or spontaneous (SPO) pasture type feeding. Bulk milk per farm was collected 4 times from February through April at 3-wk intervals. Pasture botanical and diet composition, diet nutritional quality, milk yield and composition were estimated each time. Pasture intake levels were calculated based on feed analyses, hay and concentrate amounts fed, and milk yield and chemical composition. According to pasture intake, the farms were split into low pasture intake (LPI; <29.5% of dry matter) and high pasture intake (HPI; >29.5% of dry matter) groups. Milk samples per farm were analyzed for α-tocopherol and β-carotene contents by HPLC. The SPO group had higher levels of α-tocopherol and β-carotene in milk (0.7 and 0.3 mg/L, respectively) and milk fat (19.0 and 7.5 mg/kg fat, respectively) compared with the CULT group in milk (0.5 and 0.2 mg/L, respectively) and milk fat (14.6 and 4.9 mg/kg, respectively). High pasture intake compared with LPI increased α-tocopherol in milk fat (18.0 and 16.0 mg/kg of fat, respectively). However, only in the SPO (not in CULT), HPI compared with LPI increased milk α-tocopherol (0.8 vs. 0.6 mg/L, respectively), milk β-carotene (0.3 vs. 0.2 mg/L, respectively), and milk fat β-carotene (8.4 vs. 6.6 mg/kg, respectively). Results may be related to the different botanical composition of the respective pasture types and pasture intake. Spontaneous pasture compared with CULT contained a higher mass proportion of Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Cruciferae, Euphorbiaceae, and Malvaceae plants. Milk and milk fat α-tocopherol levels were higher on test-days (TD)-1, TD-2, and TD-4 compared with TD-3. For HPI farms, milk fat β-carotene content was higher on the first 2 TD compared with the last 2 TD. These differences could be related to plant biological stage. On Sicilian dairy farms, the highest milk α-tocopherol and β-carotene contents may be obtained feeding high levels of SPO pasture in the spring.     

Double-antibody based immunoassay for the detection of β-casein in bovine milk samples

The concentration of casein (CN) is one of the most important parameters for measuring the quality of bovine milk. Traditional approach to CN concentration determination is Kjeldahl, which is an indirect method for determination of total nitrogen content. Here, we described a double-antibody based direct immunoassay for the detection of β-CN in bovine milk samples. Monoclonal antibody (McAb) was used as capture antibody and polyclonal antibody (PcAb) labelled with horseradish peroxidase (HRP) as detection antibody. With the direct immunoassay format, the linear range of the detection was 0.1–10.0 μg mL⁻¹. The detection limit was 0.04 μg mL⁻¹. In addition, the concentration of β-CN in real bovine milk samples has been detected by the developed immunoassay. There was a good correlation between the results obtained by the developed technique and Kjeldahl method from commercial samples. Compared to the traditional approach, the advantage of the assay is no need of time-consuming sample pretreatment.     

Effect of heating on the distribution of transforming growth factor-��2 in bovine milk

The objective of this study was to characterize the impact of heat treatments on the distribution of transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-??2) between cream and skim milk and between the casein and whey fractions of skim milk. Skimming removed 45% and 62% of the TGF-??2 from raw and pasteurized milks and only 8% of the total TGF-??2 in skimmed pasteurized milk was found in whey, compared to 37% in whey from raw skimmed milk. The TGF-??2 content of whey decreased as the heat treatment of the milk increased in intensity (thermization > pasteurization > UHT sterilization). Using milk held for 1 or 2 min at temperatures ranging from 57 to 84 °C, it was shown that TGF-??2 in the whey portion decreases at temperatures above 66 °C and becomes undetectable at temperatures higher than 76 °C. Altogether, these data on the heat-induced changes in TGF-??2 content of cream, skim milk, casein and whey reveal a potentially negative impact of certain heat treatments in developing TGF-??2-enriched fractions from milk.