Understanding and predicting sensory crispness of deep‐fried battered and breaded coatings

Crusted crispness refers to coatings with a dry and brittle surface contrasting a high‐moisture core; it is desirable for the enjoyment and quality of deep‐fried goods. This study aims to investigate instrumental measurements and sensory measurements of crispness. Deep‐fried breadcrumb coatings of eight sizes were investigated: 4.0 mm, 2.8 mm, 2.0 mm, 1.4 mm, 1.0 mm, 710 μm, 500 μm, and 355 μm. Sensory profiling was carried out to develop a tailored lexicon for deep‐fried battered and breaded shrimp. Principal component analysis highlights that large breadcrumb sizes correlate with crispness, hardness, particle size, surface color, color uniformity, surface irregularity, total porosity, maximum force, area, drop in force, number of sound peaks, and sound pressure level. Agglomerative hierarchical clustering was used to confirm clustering of samples according to breadcrumb size. Multiple factor analysis confirmed overall correlation between sensory measurements and instrumental measurements (RV = 0.810). Partial least squares regression was used to develop a predictive model for crispness from instrumental measurements (R² = .854). The use of texture analysis and Acoustics provide information of the structures strength and deformation behavior, while X‐ray microCT provides a high resolution and noninvasive method that acquires information on the internal morphology. These instrumental methods collectively demonstrate the relationship between microstructure to sensory. This study investigates how a change in the microstructure of deep‐fried battered and breaded coatings affect crispness perception. These changes were investigated analytically and by using a sensory panel, this is important from a manufacturing perspective in order to understand what the major contributors are to a crisp texture. The key highlights of this study include both instrumental measurements and sensory measurements can be used to measure crispness as both types of testing are correlated. Changes in the size of breadcrumbs affect both instrumental measurements and sensory measurements. A predictive model can be re‐simulated to allow prediction of crispness in deep‐fried battered and breaded coatings.     

油炸裹糊牡蛎贮藏品质的变化与货架期预测

为探讨油炸裹糊牡蛎的货架寿命,以感官评分、pH、挥发性盐基氮（total volatile basic nitrogen, TVB-N）含量、菌落总数为指标,研究在4、15、25 ℃下贮藏的油炸裹糊牡蛎的品质变化规律,建立并验证油炸裹糊牡蛎在4～25 ℃贮藏温度下的货架期预测模型。结果表明:随贮藏时间的延长,油炸裹糊牡蛎的感官评分不断下降,pH呈先下降后上升的趋势,TVB-N含量和菌落总数不断增加,且贮藏温度越高,变化越快。感官评分与TVB-N含量的相关性较pH与菌落总数的高,以TVB-N含量作为关键品质指标,建立的油炸裹糊牡蛎货架期预测模型预测的货架期相对误差小于6%,可用于快速准确地预测4～25 ℃贮藏温度下油炸裹糊牡蛎的货架寿命。     

乳清蛋白减少油炸外裹糊鱼块油脂含量的研究

本实验将添加不同比例乳清蛋白的外裹糊鱼块深度油炸,研究乳清蛋白添加量对油炸外裹糊鱼块的油脂和水分含量、质构、色泽、微观结构及油炸过程中油脂的传递途径等的影响,降低油脂外裹糊鱼块中的油脂含量。结果显示：当乳清蛋白添加量为4%时,研制出的油炸外裹糊鱼块感官品质较佳,外壳中的油脂含量较低,内部鱼块中的水分含量较高。同时,外壳的结构变紧密,内部鱼块的气孔明显变小,分布均匀,苏丹红染色的程度最轻。表明外裹糊中添加适量的乳清蛋白可阻止深度油炸过程中油的吸收,显著降低油炸外裹糊鱼块的油脂含量（P＜0.05）。     

玉米淀粉对油炸外裹糊鱼块品质的影响

本实验将添加玉米淀粉的外裹糊鱼块深度油炸,考察面粉与玉米淀粉在不同配比下油炸外裹糊鱼块的感官、油脂和水分含量,裹糊率、质构、色泽、微观结构、油脂吸收和分布等品质特性,筛选出较佳的面粉和玉米淀粉质量比例）。结果表明：m（面粉）∶m（玉米淀粉）为3∶2时,油炸外裹糊鱼块外壳和内部鱼块的油脂含量分别为22.36%和2.23%,水分含量分别为36.89%和70.19%;油炸外裹糊鱼块的裹糊率为28.10%,且外裹糊黏稠度适中;油炸外裹糊鱼块的L*、a*、b*值分别为60.18、3.15、27.32,外壳咀嚼度为2.64 kg和内部鱼块的弹性为0.92 cm,具有较高的感官评分。扫描电子显微镜（scanning electron microscope,SEM）分析显示,m（面粉）∶m（玉米淀粉）不同,油炸外裹糊鱼块的结构和气孔差异较大。当m（面粉）∶m（玉米淀粉）为3∶2时,外壳的结构紧密、有少量的气孔出现,内部鱼块的气孔分布相对均匀。苏丹红染色实验显示染色幅度随着面粉与玉米淀粉质量比的增加呈现先降低后增加的趋势,染色油通过水分蒸发形成的孔隙进入到鱼块内部。m（面粉）∶m（玉米淀粉）为3∶2时,苏丹红染色幅度较小,内部鱼块中气孔较少。说明玉米淀粉显著影响油炸外裹糊鱼块的品质。     

COATING CHARACTERISTICS OF FRIED CHICKEN BREASTS PREPARED WITH DIFFERENT PARTICLE SIZE BREADING

Characteristics of coatings formed from breading of different particle sizes were investigated in breaded, fried chicken breasts. Breading was divided into three categories namely, small (particle size ≤ U.S. No. 60 mesh), medium (particle size between U.S. No. 20 and U.S. No. 60 mesh) and large (particle size > U.S. No. 20 mesh). Chicken breasts were battered, breaded and deep-fat fried for 240 s at 160C. Smaller breading particle size produced smoother and more uniform coatings. Compressive force at 80% strain was 14.3, 85.6 and 130.5 N for small medium and large particle size breading, respectively. With larger breading particle size, L* and a* color values increased, while b* values showed no significant change. Acoustical data taken during compression of coatings did not show any significant differences due to different breading particle sizes.     

Double freezing of cod fillets: Influence on sensory,physical and chemical attributes of battered and breaded fillet portions

Fillet samples were processed on board a research vessel from cod (Gadus morhua) in different states of rigor mortis. In addition, headed and gutted fish in different states of rigor were frozen and, after ten days of frozen storage, the fish were thawed, processed into fillets and refrozen. During subsequent frozen storage at –24°C of breaded and battered portions processed from the different fillet batches several quality attributes were tested using sensory, physical, and chemical methods. The measurements indicated differences in the quality attributes depending on refreezing and rigor states. Especially the sensory texture attributes gumminess and, with some restrictions, firmness were found to be suitable for distinguishing single frozen (SF) from double frozen (DF) samples. This finding was supported by the outcome of the measurement of penetration force where generally a significantly (p < 0.05) higher force was necessary to penetrate the DF compared to SF samples. DF samples were generally lighter (higher L*) than SF samples. The colour difference δE between both sample types was at least very clear and therefore visible. However, no clear differences between SF and DF samples were found when evaluating the flavour attributes and using instrumental texture profile analysis for texture characterisation. Also, all chemical parameters measured did not allow to clearly distinguish between single and double frozen samples. Therefore, it can be stated that, at least when using cod as raw material for processing battered and breaded portions, the different methods for preparing the fillet blocks will, if at all, only affect the textural quality of the final products.     

Determination of textural deterioration in fish meat processed with electrospun nanofibers

Nano-applications are named as one of the novel methods, which provide many advantages like a larger contact area on the surface of fish fillets with less material. The goal of the study was to reveal the textural profile changes correlated with TPB growth of fish fillets coated with nanofibers having 2.47 ± 0.68 mV zeta potential value and 172 nm diameter. The difference of TPB count between control (CS) and the fish fillets treated with nanofibers (NG) reached 3.45 log CFU/g (p < .05) on the sixth day. The hardness value of CS was decreased (p < .05) (the decline: 68%) while the hardness of NG was found to be much more stable (the change: 42%). The highest change in springiness for CS and NG samples was determined as ~24 and ~15%, respectively, for 12 days. Cohesiveness values of CS were slightly increased, but those of the fish fillets coated with nanofibers were remarkably decreased. The coefficient of correlation analysis between TPB count and cohesiveness values was determined as “r = −.026 and r = .796” for CS and NG, respectively. Chewiness values of CS were significantly decreased (p < .05). However, chewiness values of the fish fillets coated with nanofibers were found as much more stable (p > .05). The results revealed that nanofiber coating limited the increase of TPB in fish fillets; it also better kept the textural profile of fish fillets as compared to CS stored at 4°C. The study could play a guiding role in further food nanotechnology applications in the industry and food science.     

Panelist Texture Preferences Affect Sensory Evaluation of Green Bean Cultivars (Phaseohs vulgaris L.)

The effects of textural preferences on sensory intensity and hedonic scores assigned by consumer panelists (50 preferred “soft” and 38 “crisp” beans) to green beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) of two cultivars cooked by 2 methods were studied. Boiled and 'Strike’beans were rated lighter than steamed and‘Mustang’beans.‘Mustang’beans were scored more acceptable for color, flavor, and overall likability. Soft textural preference panelists liked steamed beans less than boiled beans for texture, flavor, and overall likability. Hedonic scores assigned by panelists of crisp textural preference did not differ by preparation method. Selecting panelists without considering textural preferences may influence hedonic but not intensity scores.     

EFFECT OF BREADING PARTICLE SIZE ON COATING ADHESION IN BREADED, FRIED CHICKEN BREASTS

The effect of particle size on coating adhesion was measured for battered chicken breasts. Bread crumbs were separated into small (≤ 250 μm), medium (250 μm-850 μm), and large (> 850 μm) particles. Chicken breasts were battered, breaded, and deep-fat fried for 240 s at 160C. Fried products were analyzed for coating adhesion, moisture content, and yield parameters. Coating adhesion was highest in coatings formed from small particle size breading, and lowest in those made from large particle size breading. Chicken breasts coated using small particle size breading had higher moisture in the surface region of the meat as well as in the coating. SEM of the coatings showed greater merging between the breading and the batter with decreasing breading particle size. No significant differences were observed in coating pickup, cooking loss, or yield between samples coated with different particle size breading.     

Evaluation of Consumer Acceptance and Quality of Thermally and High Hydrostatic Pressure Processed Blueberries and Cherries Subjected to Cellulose Nanofiber (CNF) Incorporated Water-Resistant Coating Treatment

This study evaluated the influence of cellulose nanofiber (CNF) incorporated layer-by-layer water-resistant coating on consumer acceptance of blueberries and cherries processed in light syrup thermally (TP, 97 °C for 7 min) or non-thermally (high hydrostatic pressure (HHP), 414 MPa for 10 min). The coating technique was validated on canned blueberries in a commercial canning operation. Consumers (n?=?75 and 77 for blueberry and cherry study, respectively) scored overall, color, aroma, and texture likeness of coated and uncoated processed fruits using a 9-point hedonic scale and firmness intensity using a 5-point just about right (JAR) scale. Coating treatment significantly (P?<?0.05) increased aroma and texture liking scores of TP and HHP blueberries compared with uncoated ones, but did not impact overall and color liking scores. Coated TP (2.67) and HHP (2.96) blueberries received closer to JAR score in firmness that uncoated ones (1.88 and 2.57, respectively). Informing consumers about the benefit of developed coatings altered consumers’ attitude from negative (~?80 and ~?57% gave “neutral” and “disliking” scores on TP and HHP samples, respectively) into positive status (“I would like the overall appearance”). Coating treatment resulted in higher aroma liking scores in HHP cherries, but decreased (P?<?0.05) overall and color liking scores on both TP and HHP cherries due to the presence of visible coating substances onto fruit surface. In commercial canning process, coated blueberries showed great retention of bioactive compounds and firmness. This study demonstrated that CNF incorporated layer-by-layer coating is promising to produce high quality of processed fruits in light syrup.     

Asians’ Facial Responsiveness to Basic Tastes by Automated Facial Expression Analysis System

Growing evidence shows that consumer choices in real life are mostly driven by unconscious mechanisms rather than conscious. The unconscious process could be measured by behavioral measurements. This study aims to apply automatic facial expression analysis technique for consumers’ emotion representation, and explore the relationships between sensory perception and facial responses. Basic taste solutions (sourness, sweetness, bitterness, umami, and saltiness) with 6 levels plus water were used, which could cover most of the tastes found in food and drink. The other contribution of this study is to analyze the characteristics of facial expressions and correlation between facial expressions and perceptive hedonic liking for Asian consumers. Up until now, the facial expression application researches only reported for western consumers, while few related researches investigated the facial responses during food consuming for Asian consumers. Experimental results indicated that facial expressions could identify different stimuli with various concentrations and different hedonic levels. The perceived liking increased at lower concentrations and decreased at higher concentrations, while samples with medium concentrations were perceived as the most pleasant except sweetness and bitterness. High correlations were founded between perceived intensities of bitterness, umami, saltiness, and facial reactions of disgust and fear. Facial expression disgust and anger could characterize emotion “dislike,” and happiness could characterize emotion “like,” while neutral could represent “neither like nor dislike.” The identified facial expressions agree with the perceived sensory emotions elicited by basic taste solutions. The correlation analysis between hedonic levels and facial expression intensities obtained in this study are in accordance with that discussed for western consumers.     

Consumer Acceptability of Fresh‐Market Muscadine Grapes

The objective of this research was to investigate the acceptability of muscadine grape (Vitis rotundifolia) genotypes (cultivars and selections) and to correlate overall liking to other quality measurements to determine the main drivers of liking. Twenty‐two genotypes grown at the Univ. of Georgia–Tifton Campus were evaluated. Four retail commercial grape genotypes (Vitis vinifera and “Concord”) were also evaluated for comparison. Panelists familiar with muscadine grapes used the hedonic general labeled magnitude scale (HgLMS, –100 = strongest disliking of any kind ever experienced, +100 = strongest liking of any kind ever experienced) to rate overall liking and the liking of appearance, flavor, pulp texture, and skin texture. Puncture testing was done to assess grape berry texture, and compositional attributes soluble solids and pH were also measured. The sensory results indicated that the grapes were variable with overall liking scores from 12.2 to 39.6. The factors highly correlated with overall liking scores were muscadine flavor, pulp and skin liking, while a significant negative correlation was found between skin liking and skin texture and mechanical texture measures. The muscadine grapes with the highest overall liking scores were Ga. 5‐1‐34 and Ga. 2‐8‐21. Principal component analysis confirmed that grapes with a thinner skin and a higher pH tended to group around overall liking and flavor points. These results indicate that even among panelists familiar with muscadine grapes, skin thickness is a negative characteristic. Breeding for thinner skins may be a positive step in muscadines gaining a more widespread appeal in the fresh fruit market.     

Effects of the degree of processing of insect ingredients in snacks on expected emotional experiences and willingness to eat

This study explored willingness to eat and the negative and positive emotional expectations that people from a Western country may have toward the consumption of insect snacks. The snacks, which were presented as pictures in an online survey, differed in their degree of processing of the insect ingredient: tortilla chips made of cricket flour (“flour”), tortilla chips containing deep-fried cricket bits (“bits”), a snack consisting of tortilla chips and deep-fried crickets (“mix”), and deep-fried crickets (“crickets”). Swiss respondents (N = 428) made 39 emotional evaluations, rated willingness to eat and expected liking of the presented products. Each participant evaluated the same non-insect-containing snack (within-subjects design) and one of four insect-containing snacks (between-subjects design). Results showed that the insect snacks evoked various negative emotional expectations that went beyond expectations of disgust. Positive emotional expectations were less expected to occur. Furthermore, expectations related to disgust/uneasiness, inertia/dissatisfaction, and positive emotional evaluations were significant predictors of willingness to eat. The degree of processing of the insect ingredient partly influenced the ratings, with the “mix” product being assessed more negatively than the “flour” or “bits” products. The “cricket” product was rated more positive than expected.The research indicates that in the development and marketing of insect food, efforts should be undertaken not only to eliminate initial negative expectations of disgust and dissatisfaction but also to generate positive emotional expectations. We suggest the marketing of snacks containing processed insect ingredients will be more promising, and selling whole insects alone is more preferable to selling a mixed snack. Regardless of the degree of processing of the insect ingredient, the results suggest that marketing activities must contend with a large emotional barrier.     

Yields, Color, Moisture and Microbial Contents of Chicken Patties as Affected by Frying and Internal Temperatures

Frozen, raw, battered and breaded chicken patties were tempered to an internal temperature of 1.1 ± 0. 1°C. The patties were fried to three different internal temperatures (48.9°, 60.0° and 71.1°C) in each of three shortenings preheated to 168.3°, 179.4°, and 190.6°C. Yields and selected quality characteristics of the patties were measured. At the same internal cooking temperature, frying yield and moisture content of the patties were not different (P > 0.05). Higher frying temperature and longer frying time yielded lower Hunter “L” values and a tendency to produce higher Hunter “a” values. An interaction between frying temperature and internal temperature was significant for microbial counts. No difference (P > 0.05) in microbial count was observed when patties were fried to an internal temperature of 60.0° or 71.1°C.     

Reduction of Oil Absorption in Deep‐Fried,Battered, and Breaded Chicken Patties Using Whey Protein Isolate as a Postbreading Dip: Effect on Lipid and Moisture Content

ABSTRACT: The effectiveness of whey protein isolate (WPI) solution as a postbreading dip to reduce oil absorption in deep‐fried, battered, and breaded chicken patties was investigated. Chicken patties were battered, breaded with either crackermeal or Japanese breadcrumbs, and dipped in WPI solutions prepared at 4 different protein concentrations (0%, 2.5%, 5%, and 10%, w/w WPI) that were adjusted to pHs 2, 3, and 8 before being deep fried. Undipped chicken patties served as the control. Overall, the most effective treatment was observed for WPI solutions made at high concentrations (5% and 10% WPI) at low pH levels (pHs 2 and 3). The highest lipid reduction observed for crackermeal patties (CMP) was 31.2% for patties treated with 5% protein solutions at pH 2 while the highest lipid reduction for Japanese breadcrumb patties (JBP) was 37.5% for patties treated with 10% protein solutions at pH 2. Oil degradation and batter, breading, and whey pickup did not significantly affect final lipid and moisture content. Moisture content was generally lower in patties treated at low pH levels (pHs 2 and 3). The results indicate that the usage of WPI as a postbreading dip is a promising alternative in reducing fat content in fried foods since it could simultaneously fulfill the steady demand for fried foods and contribute to the growing effort of Americans to consume less fat.     

Effects of an evoked refreshing consumption context on hedonic responses to apple juice measured using best–worst scaling and the 9-pt hedonic category scale

Awareness of the need to consider a product’s consumption context when measuring consumer hedonic response of a product is increasing among consumer sensory researchers. This study investigated the effects of evoking a consumption context using a written scenario on hedonic response measured using best–worst scaling and the 9-pt hedonic category scale. Hedonic responses for four apple juices with relatively large sensory differences were compared when measured in the evoked context ‘when having something refreshing to drink’ using best–worst hedonic scaling (n = 65) and the 9-pt hedonic scale (n = 48). Best–worst scaling discriminated between the four apple juices when a refreshing context was evoked (p < 0.01), while the juices were equally liked using the 9-point scale (p = 0.41) when the same context was evoked. Consumers perceived best–worst scaling to be more difficult than the 9-pt scale, however there was no difference between the two methods for consumers perceived accuracy of their liking information. The present study highlights that the effect of an evoked context on hedonic response may not be universal for hedonic methods. Further research is needed to understand the effect of evoking context on the liking of products, and to determine whether this measure reflects product liking in an actual consumption context.