Fat reduction affects quality of akara (fried cowpea paste)

Akara, a fried finger food made from cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata), is popular in West Africa and has been shown to be acceptable to American consumers. Akara is, however, a high‐fat food (about 31%, dry wt basis). We determined the effects of incorporating two modifiers, high amylose cornstarch or extruded cowpea flour, on akara fat content and consumer acceptability. The modifiers were used at the 10% level. Akara fat content was reduced by 26.1% with cornstarch and by 36.8% with extruded cowpea flour. There were no significant differences in sensory ratings among samples, and all samples received acceptable ratings (6 = like slightly) for overall liking.     

Germination Conditions Affect Selected Quality of Composite Wheat-Germinated Brown Rice Flour and Bread Formulations

Abstract: Brown rice has been reported to be more nutritious after germination. Germinated brown rice flours (GBRFs) from different steeping conditions (in distilled water [DI, pH 6.8] or in a buffer solution [pH 3] for either 24 or 48 h at 35 °C) were evaluated in this study. GBRF obtained from brown rice steeped at pH 3 for 48 h contained the highest amount of free gamma aminobutyric acid (GABA; 67 mg/100 g flour). The composite flour (wheat-GBRF) at a ratio of 70 : 30 exhibited significantly lower peak viscosity (PV) (56.99 – 132.45 RVU) with higher alpha-amylase activity (SN = 696 – 1826) compared with those of wheat flour (control) (PV = 136.46 RVU and SN = 1976). Bread formulations, containing 30% GBRF, had lower loaf volume and greater hardness (P < 0.05) than the wheat bread. However, the hardness of bread containing 30% GBRF (except at pH 6.8 and 24 h) was significantly lower than that of bread containing 30% nongerminated brown rice flour (BRF). Acceptability scores for aroma, taste, and flavor of breads prepared with or without GBRFs (30% substitution) were not significantly different, with the mean score ranging from 6.1 (like slightly) to 7 (like moderately). Among the bread formulations containing GBRF, the one with GBRF prepared after 24 h steeping at pH 3 had a slightly higher (though not significant) overall liking score (6.8). This study demonstrated that it is feasible to substitute wheat flour with up to 30% GBRF in bread formulation without negatively affecting sensory acceptance. Practical Application: Our previous study revealed that flours from germinated brown rice have better nutritional properties, particularly gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), than the nongerminated one. This study demonstrated feasibility of incorporating up to 30% germinated brown rice flour in a wheat bread formulation without negatively affecting sensory acceptance. In the current United States market, this type of bread may be sold as frozen bread which would have a longer shelf life. Further study is thus needed.     

INSTRUMENTAL TEXTURE and BAKING QUALITY of HIGH-FIBER TOAST BREAD AS AFFECTED BY ADDED WHEAT MILL FRACTIONS

The effect of bran type, level of addition, particle size, addition of wheat germ, as well as other additives like improvers and dough conditioners, on the instrumental texture and baking quality of high-fiber toast bread (white pan bread) has been investigated. the specific loaf volume decreased significantly (3.45 cc/g) when the bran level was raised to 30%, but at 20% bran addition, the specific loaf volume was superior to that of the control bread. the specific loaf volume of test breads remained higher than the control bread up to a level of 7.5% wheat germ addition. Additives like ascorbic acid (50 ppm) and sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (0.5%) further improved the baking quality of test bread samples. the objective texture values (measured as compression force, kg) indicated that the test bread with bran addition up to 20% and germ up to 7.5% possessed a softer texture (0.80 kg) than the control bread (1.02 kg). In comparison with control bread, the panelists gave higher sensory scores for all attributes of test bread samples containing up to 20% red coarse bran or up to 30% red fine bran. A similar trend in sensory quality of test samples containing up to 7.5% wheat germ was also observed. High-fiber toast bread made from white flour, equal proportions of coarse and fine bran at 20%, wheat germ at 7.5%, plus sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate at 0.5% levels, was found to possess softer texture and improved sensory quality than the whole wheat flour bread.     

STUDIES ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF PAN BREAD USING RAW WHEAT GERM

Raw wheat germ, known to be high in vitamin E and other phytochemicals, was used to develop pan bread formulations. The raw wheat germ used had protein, fat and ash contents of 27.88, 9.86 and 4.33%, respectively, compared with 11.35, 1.26 and 0.61% for white flour. Reduction in specific loaf volume, due to the inclusion of wheat germ, was significantly restored by using a combination of 30 ppm potassium bromate and 50 ppm ascorbic acid. At levels of 10 and 20% germ incorporation, the use of 3.0% enzyme‐active soy flour significantly improved the specific loaf volume of the test breads. In comparison with white‐flour control bread, panelists did not find any significant differences in any of the sensory attributes of the test bread samples containing up to 10% wheat germ and 0.5% sodium stearoyl‐2‐lactylate (SSL). The minerals, protein and fat content of wheat‐germ‐enriched breads, was superior to the white‐flour control bread. It can be concluded that phytochemical‐enriched pan bread with superior nutritional and sensory qualities can be produced using white flour, 20% wheat germ, 0.5% SSL, 30 ppm potassium bromate and 50 ppm ascorbic acid.     

WHEAT BRAN (TRITICUM AESTIVUM): COMPOSITION, FUNCTIONALITY AND INCORPORATION IN UNLEAVENED BREAD

High fiber Chapathi, an Indian unleavened bread incorporating different levels (5–15%) of wheat bran to wheat flour was prepared and evaluated for acceptability and farinograph characteristics. Whole wheat flour, wheat bran and its differently milled fractions were analyzed for chemical composition and functional properties. The water absorption capacity of bran was slightly lower than that of flour and did not increase as a function of time. The bran incorporated doughs were difficult to knead and sticky with no change in rolling properties. Farinograph characteristics revealed an increase in dough development time and a decrease in mixing tolerance index as the level of incorporation of bran increased. Wheat bran incorporated products scored lesser for the sensory quality attributes than controls. The differences were statistically significant for products prepared with 10% and 15% bran and not significant for products prepared with 5% level of bran. It can be concluded that wheat bran can be incorporated up to a level of 5% for preparation of high fiber phulkas or chapathis without affecting sensory quality.     

Wheat bread enrichment with hard-to-cook bean extruded flours: nutritional and acceptance evaluation

This study describes the enrichment of wheat bread with hard-to-cook black bean (BBEF) and cowpea (CEF) extruded flours. Breads containing 10% BBEF and 10% CEF presented increase of, respectively, 9% and 10% in protein content. In addition the fiber content was 2.6 higher in 10% BBEF bread and 2.2 higher in 10% CEF bread in comparison with standard bread. Despite protein and fiber increasing, the energetic value of substituted breads remained unchanged. An increase in the substitution to 15% resulted in decrease of specific volume and density of the breads. Results of sensory analysis to 10% BBEF bread presented overall appearance scores higher than standard bread and overall flavor acceptance very similar to standard. A total of 10% CEF bread presented similar appearance to those standard bread and 73% overall flavor acceptance. It is interesting to point out that distribution of 10% CEF bread overall flavor scores showed 3 distinct levels of consumer's sensibility. Practical Application: Breads enriched with extruded bean flours presented fiber and protein content improved and a very good consumer's acceptance. These results indicate that extruded bean flours constitute ingredients nutritionally and economically viable for technological application in breads elaboration, conferring improvement of nutritional characteristics without changing sensory attributes.     

Use of Red Cowpea in the Manufacture of Some Food Products

Cowpea flour, starch and protein were successfully used as substituents in a wide range of food products, either as protein supplements or alternative ingredients. Acceptable soft buns were produced from ingredients in which wheat flour was substituted at the level of 10%, by weight, with dry- or wet-dehulled cowpea flour, or 20% with dry-milled cowpea protein fraction. Protein-fortified cookies of satisfactory sensory quality could be produced by replacing up to 50%, by weight, of wheat flour in the recipe with either dry- or wetdehulled cowpea flour, or up to 35% with cowpea protein fraction. Acceptable emulsion-type sausage was produced by replacing 5%, by weight, of its lean pork with dry-milled cowpea starch or protein fraction, or wet-dehulled cowpea flour, or 10% with dry-dehulled cowpea flour. Transparent noodles produced from wet-milled red cowpea starch had similar quality to those from mung bean starch. When, cowpea flour or protein fraction was used as a substituent in the products, protein content of the products could increase by 4–72%.     

Protein contents, physical and sensory properties of Nigerian snack foods (cake, chin-chin and puff-puff) prepared from cowpea – wheat flour blends

Some Nigerian snack foods, particularly cake, chin‐chin and puff‐puff, were prepared from blends of cowpea and wheat flours. The snack foods were evaluated for their protein content, physical and sensory characteristics. The latter included colour, flavor, texture and overall acceptability. All the snack foods showed higher protein content when compared with the 100% wheat flour based snack foods. The protein content increased with the increasing levels of cowpea flour in the blend. The physical properties of the supplemented snack foods were not adversely affected by supplementation with cowpea. Similarly, at all levels of cowpea supplementation, the sensory characteristics of the snack foods did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) from those of the 100% wheat flour based snack foods.     

Effect of Barley Flour on Quality of Balady Bread

Balady bread was prepared from barley flour (Rum and ACSAD 176 flour) with local wheat flour (Unified and Zero flour). Chemical, physical, and sensory analysis of the bread was performed. The results showed that there were variations in physical and chemical properties, between different barley varieties, barley flour, and the bread. This study showed that barley flour can be mixed with wheat flour to provide Balady bread that is acceptable to the consumer by 15 and 30%. Additional portions of barley flour resulted in harder bread, darker color, non uniform-shaped loaf, and unacceptable quality for the consumer. The results also showed a better quality of unified wheat flour compared to Zero wheat flour, which was mixed with barley flours; Rum and ACSAD 176 produced a better overall bread quality that was acceptable to the consumers.     

Comparative studies of some properties of undehulled, mechanically dehulled and manually dehulled cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Walp. L.) flours

A comparative evaluation was made of some physico‐chemical and rheological characteristics of undehulled, manually dehulled and mechanically dehulled cowpea (Vigna unguiculata Walp. L.) flours from brown and white varieties of the legume. The flours were used to prepare steamed bean paste, ‘Moinmoin’, which was analysed for some sensory parameters. Dehulling and dehulling methods had no appreciable influence on the physical characteristics and proximate composition of the flours, except ash content, which was slightly higher in undehulled flour samples. Amylograph pasting characteristics of the flours showed varying trends because of dehulling method and/or presence of seed coats. ‘Moinmoin’ samples prepared from the flours received similar ratings for all sensory attributes, with no significant differences (P < 0.01 and P < 0.05), except for the low‐rated (poorer) colour of the undehulled brown product.     

Physical,Sensory and Microbiological Properties of Wheat-Fermented Unripe Plantain Flour

The physical, sensory and microbiological properties of wheat-fermented unripe plantain composite flour bread were studied. Mature unripe plantain was peeled, sliced, steam blanched, dried and milled into flour. The flour was made into a slurry (10 g of flour/3 ml of water) and allowed to ferment for 24 h. It was then dried, pounded and sieved through 0.25 mm sieve. The fermented unripe plantain flour was then blended with wheat flour in the ratios of (wheat:fermented unripe plantain) 100:0; 90:10; 80:20; 70:30; and 60:40. Bread was produced from the flour blends using the straight dough method. Loaf weight and volume decreased significantly (p < 0.05) with increasing levels of plantain flour inclusion. Sensory evaluation of the flour samples revealed significant differences in the ratings for crumb colour and texture between 100% wheat flour (100:0) and 60% wheat-40% fermented unripe plantain flour (60:40) bread but no significant difference was observed between all bread samples with respect to crust colour, taste, aroma and overall acceptability. The sensory scores showed that all the bread samples were acceptable. Microbiological analysis (total viable count) revealed that all the bread samples were free of microorganisms for up to four days after production.     

The effect of enzymic modification on the foaming, water absorption and baking quality of defatted soya flour

Defatted soya flour slurries were treated for 0,5,10,15 and 30 min with papain at 50°C and tested for whipability, water absorption and baking quality at replacement levels in wheat flour of 10,20 and 30% (w/w). When whipped, all modified suspensions showed volume increases exceeding 250% with lower stability ratings than the unmodified samples. The 30 min enzyme treated product exhibited excellent water absorption. Use in bread resulted in a depression of loaf volume, development of a granular texture, off-colour and flavour. As was expected, all favourable characteristics decreased upon increasing the percentage of soya product in the dough formulation. Loaf volumes of breads containing 10% modified soya flour (MSF) ranged from 444 to 527 cc; with 20% MSF between 374 and 428 cc, and with 30% MSF between 383 and 409 cc. Loaf volume of all wheat flour bread was 861cc. Hunter colour difference meter readings indicated samples at all replacement levels, regardless of the enzyme modification time, exhibited higher levels of visual lightness than all wheat flour bread. All experimental breads exhibited a higher level of yellow tones and lower level of green tones compared to the all wheat flour bread.     

Quality and antioxidant property of buckwheat enhanced wheat bread

Common buckwheat (Fagopyrium esculentum Moench) was used to substitute 15% of wheat flour to make buckwheat enhanced wheat breads. Proximate composition, physical quality, functional components and antioxidant properties of buckwheat enhanced wheat breads were analysed and compared with those of white bread. Specific volumes of three breads were 6.10–6.75 cm³/g. Buckwheat enhanced wheat bread showed lower lightness and whiteness index values and higher redness and yellowness values. On a seven-point hedonic scale, all sensory results were 5.33–5.91, indicating that three breads were moderately acceptable. No differences were found in appearance, colour and overall sensory attributes for three breads, whereas both buckwheat enhanced wheat breads were rated higher in flavour and mouth feel. Buckwheat enhanced wheat bread contained more rutin and quercetin as expected. Buckwheat enhanced wheat bread was good in antioxidant activity, reducing power and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl radical scavenging ability with unhusked buckwheat enhanced wheat bread being the most effective. Overall, buckwheat enhanced wheat bread could be developed as a food with more effective antioxidant properties.     

Sensory Trial to Assess the Acceptability of Zinc Fortificants Added to Iron-fortified Wheat Products

ABSTRACT: We studied the sensory acceptability of products made from iron- and zinc-fortified wheat flour. Subjects tasted bread and noodles fortified with 30 mg of iron as FeSO₄/kg flour or iron and either 60 or 100 mg of zinc/ kg flour as either ZnSO₄ or ZnO. Subjects rated their degree of liking (DOL) for flavor, texture, and overall acceptability, using a 9-point hedonic scale. All products were generally well liked, although noodles fortified with iron and ZnO had slightly lower DOL scores than noodles fortified with iron only or iron and ZnSO₄. We conclude that foods prepared from zinc-fortified wheat flour should be well accepted.     

UTILITY OF CIE TRISTIMULUS SYSTEM IN MEASURING THE OBJECTIVE CRUMB COLOR OF HIGH-FIBER TOAST BREAD FORMULATIONS

The major objectives of this study were to develop high‐fiber toast bread formulations with lighter crumb color and to evaluate the CIE tristimulus system to measure the color of crumb as affected by the addition of various flour mill fractions. The optimized straight‐dough bread making method (AACC method 10‐10B) was used for conducting the baking trials. CIE L* a* b* values of the crumb were measured. Additional color attributes, (whiteness value, redness index (RI), saturation index (SI) and total color difference (ΔE), were calculated from these L* a* b* values. Compared with flour samples, the germ and bran fractions had significantly lower CIE L* a* b* and whiteness values, but higher redness and saturation indices, indicating darker color and hue for the latter. Test bread samples having up to 30% bran and 10% germ, were lighter in crumb color than the control whole wheat flour bread. It was concluded that high‐fiber toast bread, with lighter crumb color than whole wheat flour bread, can be produced by using white flour, and equal proportions of coarse and fine bran at 20%, germ at 5%, and sodium stearoyl‐2‐lactylate at 0.5% levels. The CIE L*a* b* tristimulus system can effectively be utilized for distinguishing crumb color variations in toast bread samples.     

Effect of raw wheat germ addition on the physical texture and objective color of a designer food (pan bread)

Pan bread formulations based on raw wheat germ, vital wheat gluten, and enzyme-active soybean flour were optimized with the objective of developing a phytochemical-enriched designer food product with superior nutritional and sensory qualities. The objective texture values (measured as compression force, g) indicated that the test bread with 10% wheat germ addition was comparable (299.9 g) to the control (210.1 g), but the compression force was significantly higher (415.4 g) at 20% wheat germ level. With 0.5% sodium stearoyl-2-lactylate (SSL), 30 ppm potassium bromate and 50 ppm ascorbic acid, the test breads with 10 and 20% wheat germ had compression force values of 313.8 g and 367.7 g, respectively. Comparing the CIE L*a* values, the test bread samples having up to 20% wheat germ were slightly darker in crumb color than the white flour control bread, but were significantly lighter than the whole wheat flour bread. However, the addition of wheat germ increased the yellow color of bread crumb as indicated by the higher b* values of 11.4, 16.4 and 21.4, for control, 10% and 20% wheat germ breads, respectively. The physical texture and objective color measurements can be used in evaluating the quality of a phytochemical-enriched designer food (pan bread). It can be concluded that wheat germ-enriched bread can be prepared by using white flour, 20% raw wheat germ, 0.5% SSL, 30 ppm potassium bromate and 50 ppm ascorbic acid to provide consumers with a functional food.     

STORAGE STABILITY OF FERROUS IRON IN WHOLE WHEAT FLOUR NAAN PRODUCTION

Premix containing ferrous sulfate, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid and folic acid (20.0:20.0:1.5 ppm) was used to fortify whole wheat flour stored at ambient temperature for 42 days. Naans (flat bread) were prepared from 0‐, 20‐, 40‐ and 60‐ppm ferrous iron‐fortified flour samples at weekly intervals and were analyzed for physicochemical constants and sensory evaluation. It was observed that flour containing 60‐ppm ferrous sulfate contained the highest iron residues. Total iron in flour samples showed no significant difference, while ferrous iron significantly decreased in fortified flour (0.53–3.08%) and in the naans (0.42–3.48%) because of its oxidation to ferric iron during storage. Phytic acid content decreased (0.886–0.810%) significantly during the same storage period. Iron levels affected some sensory characteristics significantly (P ≤ 0.05) including color, texture, flexibility, chewability and overall acceptability of the naans, but not taste and flavor. The sensory attributes of naans illustrated that naans containing 40‐ppm ferrous iron are more acceptable than those prepared with 60‐ppm ferrous iron.     

不同发酵基质的酸面团对酵母面团体系面包烘焙及老化特性的影响

应用分离自我国传统酸面团的区域特色乳酸菌--旧金山乳杆菌分别发酵小麦粉和小麦麸皮基质制成（小麦/麦麸）酸面团,研究了两种不同发酵基质的酸面团及其添加量对酵母面团体系面包烘焙及老化特性的影响。结果表明：与小麦粉制作的空白组面包相比,小麦酸面团可以明显改善面包的比容和感官品质;添加未发酵麦麸制作的非酸面团麦麸面包品质低于空白组,但引入麦麸酸面团（10%、20%、30%）后面包比容和感官评定得分均高于相对应的非酸面团麦麸面包。小麦酸面团和麦麸酸面团以及小麦麸皮均可以改善面包的老化特性,在相同贮藏期内,酸面团面包和麦麸面包的硬度增加量、水分迁移量和老化焓值都低于空白组,并且添加麦麸酸面团的面包其硬度和老化焓值都低于相对应的非酸面团麦麸面包。     

Hearth bread baking quality of durum wheat varying in protein composition and physical dough properties

Thirty durum wheat genotypes from ten countries of origin were grown in field plots for two consecutive years. Three of the genotypes were γ‐gliadin 42 types and the remainder were γ‐gliadin 45 types. Among the γ‐gliadin 45 types, six high‐molecular‐weight glutenin subunit (HMW‐GS) patterns were identified: 6 + 8, 7 + 8, 7 + 16, 14 + 15, 20 and 2*, 20. All the γ‐gliadin 42 genotypes contained low amounts of unextractable polymeric protein (UPP) and exhibited low gluten index values and weak gluten properties. The γ‐gliadin 45 genotypes exhibited a wide range of UPP, gluten index and dough strength. HMW‐GS 20 genotypes were generally weak, whereas HMW‐GS 6 + 8 and 7 + 8 genotypes were generally strong. When baked by a lean formulation, long‐fermentation straight‐dough hearth bread process, the durum wheat genotypes exhibited a wide range of baking quality. Loaf volume and bread attributes were strongly correlated with UPP and gluten index. Some of the genotypes exhibited bread attributes and loaf volume equal or slightly superior to those of a high‐quality bread wheat flour. However, even the strongest durum wheat genotypes exhibited inferior fermentation tolerance to the bread wheat flour, as seen by a requirement for lower baking absorption during dough handling and more fragile dough properties when entering the oven. Among the HMW‐GS groups, HMW‐GS 7 + 8 and 6 + 8 exhibited the best and HMW‐GS 20 the poorest baking quality. Farinograph, alveograph and small‐scale extensigraph properties demonstrated that a combination of dough elasticity and extensibility was needed for superior durum wheat baking performance. Copyright © 2007 Society of Chemical Industry