光学玻璃塑性模式超精密磨削加工的研究

利用超精密磨床磨削加工6种典型的光学玻璃,先从理论上研究了脆性材料脆塑转变的临界值,然后对脆性材料作了大量磨削实验,实验结果表明,超精密磨削脆性材料时存在着断裂模式,断裂与塑性模式、塑性模式,这些模式主要由砂轮磨粒的切削深度进行控制,该磨削表面粗糙度与磨粒尺寸的大小,砂轮的进给量及玻璃的材料有关,当光学玻璃在塑性模式磨削时,其表面层不会产生任何裂纹缺陷,利用超精密磨床进行磨削加工,获得的表面粗糙度Ra低于5nm。     

An investigation into parallel and cross grinding of BK7 glass

Conventional grinding of BK7 glass will normally result in brittle fracture at the surface, generating severe sub-surface damage and poor surface finish. The precision grinding of BK7 glass in parallel and cross grinding modes has been investigated. Grinding process, maximum chip thickness, ductile/brittle regime, surface roughness and sub-surface damage have been addressed. Special attention has been given to the condition for generating a ductile mode response on the ground surface. A polishing–etching method has been used to obtain the depth of sub-surface damage. Experiments reveal that the level of surface roughness and depth of sub-surface damage vary differently for different grinding modes. This study gives an indication of the strategy to follow to achieve high quality ground surfaces on brittle materials.     

Ultra-precision ductile grinding of BK7 using super abrasive diamond wheel

In this paper, a novel conditioning technique using copper bonded diamond grinding wheels of 91 μm grain size and electrolytic in-process dressing (ELID) is first developed to precisely and effectively condition a nickel-electroplated monolayer coarse-grained diamond grinding wheel of 151 μm grain size. Under optimised conditioning parameters, the super abrasive diamond wheel was well conditioned in terms of a minimized run-out error and flattened diamond grain surfaces of constant peripheral envelope. The conditioning force was monitored by a force transducer, while the modified wheel surface status was in-situ monitored by a coaxial optical distance measurement system. Finally, the grinding experiment on BK7 was conducted using the well-conditioned wheel with the corresponding surface morphology and subsurface damage measured by atomic force microscope (AFM) and scanning electric microscope (SEM), respectively. The experimental result shows that the newly developed conditioning technique is applicable and feasible to ductile grinding optical glass featuring nano scale surface roughness, indicating the potential of super abrasive diamond wheels in ductile machining brittle materials. __________ Translated from Chinese Journal of Mechanical Engineering, 2006, 42(10): 95–101 [译自: 机械工程学报]     

光学脆性材料的金刚石切削加工

重点对脆性材料的超精密研磨、抛光加工技术及超精密磨削加工技术和超精密切削加工技术进行了分析研究。分析表明,硬脆材料光学元件主要应进行超精密研磨、抛光及超精密磨削加工;软脆材料光学元件主要应进行金刚石切削加工。对软脆材料金刚石切削进行了试验设计,指出了光学脆性材料的金刚石切削加工过程不同于金属加工过程,通过控制切削条件可以实现脆性材料塑性域加工,提高光学脆性材料的表面加工质量。     

A review on ductile mode cutting of brittle materials

Brittle materials have been widely employed for industrial applications due to their excellent mechanical, optical, physical and chemical properties. But obtaining smooth and damage-free surface on brittle materials by traditional machining methods like grinding, lapping and polishing is very costly and extremely time consuming. Ductile mode cutting is a very promising way to achieve high quality and crack-free surfaces of brittle materials. Thus the study of ductile mode cutting of brittle materials has been attracting more and more efforts. This paper provides an overview of ductile mode cutting of brittle materials including ductile nature and plasticity of brittle materials, cutting mechanism, cutting characteristics, molecular dynamic simulation, critical undeformed chip thickness, brittle-ductile transition, subsurface damage, as well as a detailed discussion of ductile mode cutting enhancement. It is believed that ductile mode cutting of brittle materials could be achieved when both crack-free and no subsurface damage are obtained simultaneously.     

Study on high-speed grinding mechanisms for quality and process efficiency

This paper focuses on the mechanism of high-speed grinding to achieve quality and efficiency for ceramics. The criterion of the brittle–ductile removal transition of ceramics is calculated and analyzed. The effects of the wheel velocity on the specific grinding forces, energy, and specific material removal rates were investigated. The influence of the wheel velocity on the surface integrity was studied in the terms of surface roughness by a 3D optical profilometer, scanning electron microscopy, respectively. The ductile removal mechanism of brittle material was validated experimentally. High quality and efficiency of grinding for SiC can been attained with high-speed grinding due to the understanding of the characteristics and mechanism for ductile grinding of brittle materials with high-speed grinding. Furthermore, based on the high-performance grinding mechanism, reasonable definitions on high-speed grinding are proposed.     

石英玻璃的单颗磨粒划擦应力场解析模型及损伤可控磨削机理研究

构建了单颗磨粒划擦各向同性硬脆材料的弹性应力场解析模型,并以此为基础提出单颗磨粒划擦各向同性硬脆材料表面的裂纹失稳扩展临界函数,临界函数包含原始表面应变速率、磨削液等因素对裂纹扩展造成的影响。将石英玻璃作为研究对象,深入分析了表面微裂纹损伤的可控磨削机理。在进行石英玻璃的磨削试验中,材料的磨削机理随单颗磨粒磨削深度的增加而变化,依次是塑性域去除、低载半脆性域去除、全脆性域去除和高载半脆性域去除。在1 mm/min的工件进给速度下,可以对石英玻璃进行塑性域磨削,从而获得无裂纹损伤的光滑磨削表面,然而其磨削效率较低,在实际生产中不能发挥理想的作用。对石英玻璃开展全脆性域磨削时,材料去除率较高、加工表面表面质量好、微裂纹损伤深度较小,砂轮自锐性良好,是一种优良的精密磨削工艺。     

Ultra-precision grinding of optical glasses using mono-layer nickel electroplated coarse-grained diamond wheels. Part 2: Investigation of profile and surface grinding

After finishing the precision conditioning of mono-layer nickel electroplated coarse-grained diamond wheels with 151 μm (D151), 91 μm (D91) and 46 μm (D46) grain size, resp., profile and surface grinding experiments were carried out on a five-axis ultra-precision grinding machine with BK7, SF6 optical glasses and Zerodur glass ceramic. A piezoelectric dynamometer was used to measure the grinding forces, while an atomic force microscopy (AFM), white-light interferometer (WLI)) and scanning electron microscope (SEM) were used to characterize the ground surface quality in terms of micro-topography and subsurface damage. Moreover, the wear mechanics of the coarse-grained diamond wheels were analyzed and the grinding ratio was determined as well, in aiming to evaluate the grinding performance with the conditioned coarse-grained diamond wheels. Finally, the grinding results were compared with that of the fine-grained diamond wheels with regard to the ground specimen surface quality, process forces and wheel wear as a function of stock removal. The experimental results show that the precision conditioned coarse-grained diamond wheels can be applied in ductile mode grinding of optical glasses with high material removal rates, low wheel wear rates and no dressing requirement yielding excellent surface finishes with surface roughness in the nanometer range and subsurface damage in the micrometer range, demonstrating the feasibility and applicability of the newly developed diamond grinding technique for optical glasses.     

<Emphasis Type="Bold">Ductile or Partial Ductile Mode Machining of Brittle Materials</Emphasis>

This paper reports ductile or partial ductile mode machining of silicon, glass and some advanced ceramics. Results are presented using scanning electron micrographs of the machined surfaces. Grinding and lapping operations using inexpensive machine tools could produce ductile streaks on surfaces of these brittle materials under good conditions. Manufacture of spherical glass lenses by the fracture mode or partial ductile mode grinding followed by partial ductile mode lapping and ductile mode polishing is fast and economical. Using partial ductile mode grinding and ductile mode polishing has also been very successful for manufacturing aspherical glass lenses. Reduced polishing time and improved surface quality are due to the presence of ductile streaks. Ground silicon, ZrO2 and Al2O3 also showed ductile streaks. Toroidal SiC surfaces ground with flat-face cup wheels indicated 100% ductile machining, and did not require polishing.     

电镀金刚石砂轮高效精密修整及熔融石英磨削试验研究

大尺寸光学玻璃元件主要采用细磨粒金刚石砂轮进行精密/超精密磨削加工,但存在砂轮修整频繁、工件表面面形精度难以保证、加工效率低等缺点。采用大磨粒金刚石砂轮进行加工则具有磨削比大、工件面形精度高等优点,然而高效精密的修整是其实现精密磨削的关键技术。采用Cr12钢对电镀金刚石砂轮(磨粒粒径151 μm)进行粗修整,借助修整区域聚集的热量加快金刚石的磨损,可使砂轮的回转误差快速降至10 μm以内。结合在线电解修锐技术,采用杯形金刚石修整滚轮对粗修整后的电镀砂轮进行精修整,砂轮的回转误差可达6 μm以内,轴向梯度误差由6 μm降至2.5 μm。通过对修整前后的金刚石砂轮表面磨损形貌成像及其拉曼光谱曲线分析了修整的机理。对应于不同的砂轮修整阶段进行熔融石英光学玻璃磨削试验,结果表明,砂轮回转误差较大时,工件材料表面以脆性断裂去除为主;随着砂轮回转误差和轴向梯度误差的减小,工件表面材料以塑性去除为主,磨削表面粗糙度为Ra19.6 nm,亚表层损伤深度低至2 μm。可见,经过精密修整的大磨粒电镀金刚石砂轮可以实现对光学玻璃的精密磨削。     

Tool wear and its effect on surface roughness in diamond cutting of glass soda-lime

For the technology of diamond cutting of optical glass, the high tool wear rate is a main reason for hindering the practical application of this technology. Many researches on diamond tool wear in glass cutting rest on wear phenomenon describing simply without analyzing the genesis of wear phenomenon and interpreting the formation process of tool wear in mechanics. For in depth understanding of the tool wear and its effect on surface roughness in diamond cutting of glass, experiments of diamond turning with cutting distance increasing gradually are carried out on soda-lime glass. The wear morphology of rake face and flank face, the corresponding surface features of workpiece and the surface roughness, and the material compositions of flank wear area are detected. Experimental results indicate that the flank wear is predominant in diamond cutting glass and the flank wear land is characterized by micro-grooves, some smooth crater on the rake face is also seen. The surface roughness begins to increase rapidly, when the cutting mode changes from ductile to brittle for the aggravation of tool wear with the cutting distance over 150 m. The main mechanisms of inducing tool wear in diamond cutting of glass are diffusion, mechanical friction, thermo-chemical action and abrasive wear. The proposed research makes analysis and research from wear mechanism on the tool wear and its effect on surface roughness in diamond cutting of glass, and provides theoretical basis for minimizing the tool wear in diamond cutting brittle materials, such as optical glass.     

Ultraprecision machining of polymers

The single-point diamond machining of several polymeric materials has been investigated. The final surface structure and roughness of the workpiece is determined by well-established fundamentals of polymer mechanics. Material is removed via ductile, brittle, or transitional mechanisms that depend on polymer properties such as glass transition temperature, relaxation time, degree of crosslinking, and viscosity. For some materials, the mechanism could be changed from ductile to brittle with a change of operating and tool parameters. In brittle materials, the surface roughness is largely controlled by the rake face angle of the diamond. For ductile workpieces, the melt viscosity of the polymer is important. Crosslinked materials are restricted from ductile behavior by the presence of chemical bonds. As a result, material removal occurs by rupture or an extreme fracture process. With an understanding of polymer behavior, suitability of new materials for single-point diamond machining can be assessed. The change of successful processing within the operating range of the tool can be determined with a minimum number of trial and error experiments.     

陶瓷材料的超精密磨削加工

对陶瓷材料超精密磨削加工的研究结果表明,陶瓷等脆性材料的磨削表面粗糙度主要与砂轮的平均磨粒尺寸、进给量等因素有关。只有当金刚石砂轮的平均磨粒尺寸小于１８ ．５μｍ 时,才能在塑性磨削模式下加工出表面粗糙度为ｒｍｓ４ ．１５ｎｍ 、 Ｒａ３ ．０７ｎｍ 的高质量光滑表面。     

Theoretical model of brittle material removal fraction related to surface roughness and subsurface damage depth of optical glass during precision grinding

Brittle material removal fraction (BRF) is defined as the area fraction of brittle material removed on machined surface. In the present study, a novel theoretical model of BRF was proposed based on indentation profile caused by intersecting of lateral cracks. The proposed model is related to surface roughness and the subsurface damage (SSD) depth of optical glass during precision grinding. To investigate the indentation profile, indentation tests of K9 optical glass were conducted using single random-shape diamond grains. The experimental results indicate that the indentation profile is an exponent function. To verify the proposed BRF model, BRF, surface roughness and SSD depth of K9 optical glasses were investigated by a series of grinding experiments with different cutting depths. The experimental results show that BRF is dependent on surface roughness and SSD depth. The relationship between BRF, surface roughness and SSD depth is in good accordance with the proposed theoretical model. The proposed BRF model is a reasonable approach for estimating surface roughness and SSD depth during precision grinding of optical glass.     

镁铝尖晶石的塑性域磨削

为了避免和减小镁铝尖晶石在研磨工艺中产生的亚表面损伤,研究了合理控制磨削参数,实现镁铝尖晶石塑性域磨削的方法。分析了镁铝尖晶石的脆塑转变机理,采用不同尺寸规格的金刚石砂轮磨粒和改变砂轮进给量等参数进行了大量实验,探索了镁铝尖晶石的塑性磨削条件及影响因素,实现了镁铝尖晶石的塑性域高精度磨削。采用VG401MKⅡ型超精密磨床和3000#金刚石砂轮,设定砂轮速度为20m/s,工件速度为0.3m/s,进给量为0.5~3μm/r进行了磨削实验。结果显示:当金刚石砂轮磨粒的平均尺寸小于8μm时可以实现镁铝尖晶石的塑性磨削,其表面粗糙度Ra可以达到2.291nm,透光率可提高17%。研究结果表明,砂轮的平均磨粒尺寸和砂轮进给量对镁铝尖晶石材料的表面加工质量影响很大,该结果为研究磨削高质量镁铝尖晶石表面提供了依据。     

光学镜片亚表面损伤形成数值模拟与分析

针对当前光学镜片亚表面损伤的研究重点主要集中在加工工艺参数及磨粒粒径、分布等方面的现状,基于脆性材料压痕断裂理论,深入分析了加工过程所导致光学镜片亚表面损伤,对不同锐度角的磨粒在相同载荷不同加工速度下与光学镜片表面间的抛光过程进行了微观动态仿真。获得了在不同加工参数作用下磨头与镜片表面间的摩擦接触、应力应变分布及亚表面损伤等情况,归纳出亚表面损伤裂纹深度、亚表面损伤空穴深度、体积去除率、表面破损率、磨粒锐度角及磨抛速度等相关参数之间的关系,并得出如下结论：当磨粒锐度角为54°~58°,加工速度为7～8m/s时,加工后的镜片在保证一定加工效率的同时,产生的亚表面损伤及表面破损率最小。     

石英玻璃的热辅助高效塑性域干磨削

为了提高大口径石英玻璃光学元件的加工效率,提出了热辅助塑性域超精密磨削石英玻璃的新方法。分析了石英玻璃的热辅助塑性域磨削机理,通过理论推导得出磨削深度对磨削区表面最高温升的影响规律。采用陶瓷结合剂立方氮化硼(CBN)砂轮对石英玻璃进行干磨削,利用磨削热改善磨削区石英玻璃的力学性能,实现了石英玻璃的高效塑性域磨削。通过磨削实验研究了不同磨削深度对石英玻璃表面粗糙度(Ra)和亚表面损伤深度的影响。实验结果表明,随着磨削深度的增加,Ra和亚表面损伤深度反而降低。当磨削深度为5μm,大于粗磨表面的裂纹深度时,获得了Ra值为0.07μm的光滑无裂纹的塑性域磨削表面。通过扫描电镜观察研究了砂轮的磨损机理,结果显示陶瓷结合剂CBN砂轮塑性域干磨削石英玻璃时,砂轮以磨耗磨损为主,该结果为研究新型的陶瓷结合剂CBN砂轮提供了依据。     

Deformation analysis of micro/nano indentation and diamond grinding on optical glasses

The previous research of precision grinding optical glasses with electrolytic in process dressing (ELID) technology mainly concentrated on the action of ELID and machining parameters when grinding,whic...     

超音速火焰喷涂WC-17Co涂层的高速磨削机理试验研究

针对超音速火焰喷涂WC-17Co高硬涂层的加工难题,对WC-17Co涂层进行了高速/超高速磨削试验。通过考察不同金刚石砂轮和磨削工艺参数对磨削力、磨削温度和表面残余应力、表面/亚表面微观形貌和表面粗糙度的影响,讨论了最大未变形切屑厚度与比磨削能的内在关系,分析了磨削温度对表面残余应力的作用规律,探讨了法向磨削力对涂层亚表面损伤的作用规律。结果表明：WC-17Co涂层磨削去除是脆性和延性去除并存;提高砂轮线速度将使磨削力先快速减小后缓慢增大,磨削温度持续升高,涂层磨削从脆性去除转为延性去除的趋势也逐渐增强,表面残余应力由压应力逐渐转变为拉应力,而磨削高温引起涂层热塑性变形是表面残余应力状态转变的根本原因。涂层亚表面磨削损伤层平均深度随法向磨削力的增大而变大。提高砂轮线速度、降低工作台速度和减小磨削深度均能增大涂层磨削塑性去除的比例。     

Characteristics of chip generation by vertical elliptic ultrasonic vibration-assisted grinding of brittle materials

Elliptic ultrasonic vibration-assisted grinding has been proven to be a high-efficiency machining technique for some brittle materials. This paper aims to investigate the chip generating characteristics in grinding of brittle materials with vertical elliptic vibration assistance. Vertical elliptic ultrasonic vibration-assisted grinding for precision machining brittle polysilicon is suggested and tested. The mechanism of chip generation and characteristics of surfaces in ductile mode, machined by ultrasonic vibration-assisted grinding, are investigated. As a result, when microgrinding by ultrasonic vibration, it was confirmed that the continuous chips generated by ductile mode can be more easily be fully developed.