国家模式建构与地方差异——京沪两地1950年代规划编制的苏联影响之比较

1950年代对当代中国城乡规划发展是起承转合的十年,以全面向苏联老大哥学习开始,到“以苏为鉴”结束.一个普遍的印象是,京沪两地在1950年代规划编制中对待苏联规划模式的反应有着明显的地方差异.时至今日,北京与莫斯科两座城市从城市空间格局、风貌到市政设施布局,仍然呈现出较高的相似度;而同期苏联专家在上海的规划意图虽然在文本中被谨慎地遵循着,但从1950年代末完成的规划总图和后期实施上,上海更多地延续了1940年代大上海都市计划的现代主义规划模式.本文通过史料挖掘呈现京沪两地在同时期尤其是总体规划编制演进中对套用苏联模式反应的地方差异,以探究中国规划中的苏联影响及本土化发生.     

Transnational mobilities: Western European architects and planners in the Soviet industrial cities, 1928–1933

During the first Five-Year Plan, the Soviet state relied on the expert knowledge of groups of German and other foreign workers (architects, planners, skilled labourers) to design and build the standardized housing projects for industrial cities. This paper outlines the complicated transfer of Western planning ideas and designs into actual built spaces, focusing on the gap between initial plans and the makeshift and provisional types of housing that were constructed in the Soviet industrial city of the early 1930s, amidst escalating attacks on functionalist architecture and constantly fluctuating attitudes toward foreign specialists.     

Government Policy,the Local State,and Gentrification: The Case of Prenzlauer Berg (Berlin), Germany

Abstract: Since reunification, Berlin planners have sought to find a niche for a post‐industrial New Berlin integrated into Europe. While great scholarly attention has focused on the grand projects that have dominated the reconstruction of the city's government and downtown commercial districts, only lesser attention has been paid to the city's housing and social policies. This article seeks to identify the extent to which Berlin planners have permitted unabated market‐led redevelopment to proceed and to what extent local policy has sought more balanced redevelopment and the “European city” ideal. The article looks at gentrifying Prenzlauer Berg, in eastern Berlin, to assess the extent to which public policy measures can be expected to constrain and temper, and not just promote, gentrification. The role played by community development organizations in mediating development is observed. The impact of the city's fiscal crisis and slack housing market are also noted.     

Mass housing and urbanization: on the road to modernization in Santiago,Chile, 1930–60

The creation of the Caja de la Habitación Popular [Popular Housing Fund] in 1936 was largely a quest for the design of a model home and a modern city for Chile, a country emerging from colonialism. The Caja operated for twenty‐six years until 1952, building 43 310 houses during three different presidential administrations. It soon became the major way to reflect the country’s development, modernize society, bolster the economy, support national industry and signal what role housing programmes would play in public policy for the rest of the twentieth century. While previous administrations were motivated primarily by partisan politics, the new era of public administration was based upon an objective planning system. This paper focuses on the Caja’s affordable housing struggle and how it shaped large portions of Santiago between the 1930s and 1960s. It also explores the transformation in public housing programmes and agencies from their amateur beginnings to their later professionalized approach. It examines a number of the public and private housing schemes built during different political regimes in Santiago’s history, the planners and architects making persistent efforts to modernize and develop the city. These projects explored both the potentialities and limitations of urban design in housing and made a profound impact on housing design in Chile, as well as on the morphology of its cities.     

Neighborhood Planning as Collaborative Democratic Design

Problem: Historically, neighborhood participation has lapsed into NIMBYism or has not been especially effective at long-term, inclusive, and integrative planning.

Purpose: I aim to describe and analyze an example of how local governments can function as civic enablers and capacity builders for collaborative and accountable planning among neighborhood stakeholders and city government.

Methods: This is a case study of Seattle's neighborhood planning approach in the 1990s based on semistructured interviews with 33 current and former planners, other officials, and neighborhood activists, and review of a broad selection of neighborhood plans and other planning documents and newspaper coverage of the planning process.

Results and conclusions: The city of Seattle developed a set of tools and resources to empower local citizens in the planning process while also holding them accountable for actions consistent with specified broad values and planning targets. This, together with the city's substantial investment in neighborhood planning staff, who served as relational organizers and intermediaries of trust, was critical to the success of neighborhood planning and to the emergence of a collaborative governance culture among highly diverse and often contentious community associations, business interests, city departments, and the city council.

Takeaway for practice: Diverse neighborhoods can find common ground and make positive progress on planning to address shared citywide concerns. However, they need staff assistance to do this. Neighborhood planners can play this role, but only if cities fund them to do this time-consuming work and provide institutional support and guidance.     

What happened to Abu Dhabi’s urbanism? The question of regional integration

Neighbourhoods designed for Emirati citizens form more than 50% of Abu Dhabi’s urbanized land. As a result of planning strategies that neglect regionalism, these percentages are likely to grow in an unsustainable manner. This study traces these neighbourhoods’ morphological evolution towards the goal of identifying urban attributes that encourage cohesive growth. The analysis identifies three periods in Abu Dhabi’s neighbourhood morphology: the Inception Period (1967–1975), characterized by diversity, close-knit neighbourhoods, environmentally sensitive planning and integration with adjacent neighbourhoods and the city fabric; the Dispersion Period (1975–2007), characterized by fragmentation, massive expansion, parcel inflation and restricted integration with existing fabrics; and the Redemption Period (2007–present), characterized by nostalgic historicism, densification, parcel deflation and sparse regional integration. Neighbourhood typologies developed after the 1980s failed to conceive of physical planning at different scales. This failure led to a lack of environmental stewardship in efforts to meet citizens’ housing needs. Future development must take into account both cultural affinities and environmental effects and create effective compromises between these two priorities. Instead of relying on foreign experts, Abu Dhabi must involve local planners and academics in the construction of a new policy agenda that promotes the integration of different planning scales.     

The urban context for adjustments to the planning process in post-soviet Russia: Responses from local planners in Siberia

This paper examines changes to planning practices in different types of Russian cities that inherited varying levels of administrative status and economic diversification during the Soviet period. Considered the hallmark of the previous regime, planning faces a tenuous fate because of its perceived incompatibility with a democratic, market-based society. For many cities, urban development plans created during the Soviet period do not represent or accommodate the needs of post-Soviet society. Local planners, whose main responsibility previously was to execute these now-defunct plans, are redefining their role within city administration in order to remain relevant. The responses to these fundamental issues at the local level vary by city-type because of post-Soviet realities distinctly impacting each type of city.     

Revisiting the role of architects in planning large-scale housing in the USSR: the birth of socialist residential districts in Tallinn,Estonia, 1957–1979

In Central and Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union, housing estates are often associated with inhumane architecture and unwelcoming public space, an outcome that can be attributed to strict design requirements in a rigid centralized system. Due to the uniformity of residential housing produced during socialist times, both the design process and its master – the architect – are believed to have played only minor roles in shaping townscapes. This study, situated in the large housing estates of Tallinn, Estonia, challenges these assumptions using analyses of archival material (relating to planning procedures during state socialism) and articles in specialized magazines. The study also explains – through first-hand interviews with senior architects who were key players in building socialist cities – the relations between Soviet regulations and vital elements of the city-building process, including creativity, power, and artistry. Analysis of primary source materials highlights an oversimplification of socialist modernism, which suggests more nuanced explanations for town planning outcomes. Findings suggest that regulations issued in Moscow for Union of Soviet Socialist Republic-wide planning played a less important role than previously assumed in town planning outcomes in Estonia. International modernist city planning ideals, combined with local expertise, strongly influenced town planning practice in the Soviet ‘West’.     

When Tourists Move In: How Should Urban Planners Respond to Airbnb?

Problem, research strategy, and findings: The online accommodation platform Airbnb has expanded globally, raising substantial planning and regulatory concerns. We ask whether Airbnb rentals generate significant neighborhood impacts like noise, congestion, and competition for parking; reduce the permanent rental housing supply and increase rental prices; or provide income opportunities that help “hosts” afford their own housing. We focus on Sydney, the largest region in Australia with 4.4 million people in 28 individual municipalities, which has experienced both rapidly rising housing costs and exponential growth in Airbnb listings since 2011. Airbnb’s growth has raised concerns serious enough to result in a formal Parliamentary Inquiry by the state of New South Wales. We analyze stakeholder submissions to this inquiry and review local planning regulations, Airbnb listings data, and housing market and census statistics. We find that online homesharing platforms for visitor accommodations blur traditional boundaries between residential and tourist areas so Airbnb listings may fall outside of existing land use regulations or evade detection until neighbors complain. Our findings are constrained by the difficulties of monitoring online operations and the rapid changes in the industry.

Takeaway for practice: Planners and policymakers in cities with increasing numbers of Airbnb rentals need to review how well local planning controls manage the neighborhood nuisances, traffic, and parking problems that may be associated with them while acting to protect the permanent rental housing supply. Local planners need to ensure that zoning and residential development controls distinguish between different forms of short-term Airbnb accommodation listings and their potential impacts on neighborhoods and housing markets.     

The Migrant Metropolis and American Planning

Problem: Immigration poses various problems for U.S. cities and regions, and the roles planners should play in migrant communities are not clear.

Purpose: I consider how practitioners and scholars have understood and addressed the planning challenges and opportunities presented by the major migrations of ethnic minorities to U.S. cities and regions over the past century.

Methods: I trace discussions of planning and migration at professional planning conferences over the past century and survey planning scholarship and practice related to immigration and migrant communities in three principal eras: early 20th century southern and eastern European immigration; the mid-century internal migrations of African Americans and Puerto Ricans; and immigration in the late 20th and early 21st century.

Results and conclusions: Over the past century, immigration has had physical, economic, and social effects on people and places that are legitimate concerns of urban planners. Yet, the planning profession has had an ambiguous and often ambivalent relationship with migrant communities and has struggled to define specific roles for planners within those communities while social workers and other community and economic development practitioners played larger roles. Planning scholars have not paid as much attention to migrants' adaptation and mobility in U.S. society or their impacts on receiving communities, labor markets, housing, and congestion as have other scholars and urbanists.

Takeaway for practice: Planners have engaged with migrants in a variety of ways. Understanding this history provides context for contemporary debates about immigration and helps frame challenges and opportunities in migrant and receiving communities as planning problems.

Research support: None.     

Whiteness and Urban Planning

Abstract

Problem, research strategy, and findings: The ability of planning to address America’s urban problems of inequality, crime, housing, education, and segregation is hampered by a relative neglect of Whiteness and its role in shaping urban outcomes. We offer a justification for centering Whiteness within urban planning scholarship and practice that would examine its role shaping and perpetuating regional and racial injustices in the American city. The focus of planners, scholars, and public discourse on the “dysfunctions” of communities of color, notably poverty, high levels of segregation, and isolation, diverts attention from the structural systems that produce and reproduce the advantages of affluent and White neighborhoods. Planners and planning scholars frequently invoke a “legacy of injustice” with regard to concentrated poverty and disadvantage but not in regard to neighborhoods of White affluence. One is segregated and problematized and the other is idealized.

Takeaway for practice: Planners and planning scholars need to understand the role of Whiteness, in particular White affluence, to assess the potential impacts of planning interventions. Doing so will inform a wider range of planning approaches to problems of racial and spatial equity.     

Critical Unresolved Problems of Urban Planning Analysis

Sound city planning requires a valid theoretical and analytical base. But our present knowledge of the functioning of urban organisms and their analysis for planning purposes does not justify the operational pretensions of city planning practitioners, nor the academic claim that city planning is as yet an intellectual discipline and prospective science. In the United States, development of the foundation of fundamental knowledge for sound city planning has been subordinated to strengthening the superstructure of professional practice.

Emulating the paper “Mathematical Problems” presented by David Hilbert at the turn of the century, twenty-three critical unresolved problems of urban planning analysis are identified and explained briefly. City planners are aware of most of these problems separately, but the importance of their resolution warrants collective statement. When these problems are resolved, urban planning will be established as a foremost field of knowledge deserving universal application.     

关于局部地块概念规划的思考

局部地块概念规划是城市规划师主动服务的一种务实性规划,是针对体制转型阶段中城市快速发展的应对方法之一。通过规划实践,强调该类型规划的在解决城市敏感地块中具有积极的意义与作用,旨在加强规划编制对地方政府行为的科学引导,逐步改善规划师长期困惑的"被动式"规划服务。     

Towards democratic planning? Negotiating change in St Kilda,Melbourne

Are planners ‘dealmakers’ caught up in selling urban areas to the highest bidder, or are they negotiators concerned to maintain democratic planning and social diversity in areas that are subject to gentrification? This paper explores this question through the example of two sites in St Kilda, Melbourne. The sites highlight planning strategies used at the local government level by planners who are attempting to negotiate change and to maintain the social and cultural diversity of the area. The first example illustrates the processes of ‘democratic planning’ where planners question what is ‘legitimate’ and draw on discourses of local need. The second example illustrates the problems of co‐opting local culture within a process of democratic planning that is based on community consultation. Together, the examples illustrate the need for tighter local government policies, including stricter policies about the use of developer contributions, and a closer and more critical focus on the term ‘community consultation’, if democratic planning is to be achieved.     

Urbanisation-related Landscape Change in Space and Time along Spatial Gradients near Roads: A Case Study from Estonia

The quantification of landscape patterns and the changes caused by suburbanisation processes is essential to the understanding of the causes and consequences of the human-induced spatial patterns. By using spatial gradients along main roads near cities, we attempted to quantify the influence of roads on the suburbanisation process and settlement structure in Estonia. The rapid suburbanisation process that has been influenced by the revision of planning principles and land reform has created preconditions for creation of scattered housing areas around cities. Landscape metrics gradients were calculated for three roads leading out of Tallinn, the capital of Estonia. Results showed that the urbanisation-related fragmentation of landscapes decreases with distance from the road. The number of buildings is highest between 100 and 500 meters from the road. Distance from the city causes less difference in fragmentation than distance from the road. Because of the land reform and revision of planning principles that took place after the Soviet period, suburbanisation has not, however, been symmetrical in relation to roads. We could not detect significant in-filling near the roads and therefore this should be under more serious consideration in planning process in the future.     

Vladivostok: City of three eras

Founded in 1860 as a naval post, today Vladivostok is Russia's largest city located on the Pacific Ocean. It owes its existence to its excellent natural harbour and its position at the far south‐eastern extremity of the Russian land mass, which made it the logical terminus for the national Russian railroad, the Trans‐Siberian. From a population of only a few dozen sailors inhabiting primitive barracks during its early years, the city now has a population of over 700 000 and is the centre of an urban region of more than a million. The city's early growth was haphazard, and only over time did it develop in a more rational way. The military, bureaucratic, and capitalist city of the early years of this century was changed only superficially by the Bolshevik Revolution, and it was only with the Five Year Plans of the 1930s that substantial projects for renewing older sections of the city were combined with ambitious proposals to build a model Soviet urban centre. These plans were thwarted by the Second World War, and it was not until the 1950s that the hopes of the 1930s again begin to be discussed seriously. Nikita Khrushchev's calls for the building of a new Vladivostok signified the beginnings of a wholesale reconstruction and expansion of the city. The process continued during the Brezhnev years, and entirely new suburbs were created that changed the nature of the city fundamentally. Today Vladivostok is a mixture of old pre‐revolutionary structures interspersed with examples of Soviet mass‐produced housing and historicist office buildings, surrounded by immense mikroraiony of often dismal, if socially‐responsible housing blocks. In the future the city may change significantly as Vladivostok responds to the significant challenges facing Russia and to the opportunities presented by the thriving Pacific Rim region.     

The role of ‘race’ in the likelihood of city participation in the United States public and section 8 existing housing programmes

Research on US housing and politics provides evidence for persistent racial discrimination, dual housing markets (one for whites and one for blacks in particular) and racial segregation. Research also shows the relationship between government subsidised low‐income housing programmes and continued segregation. This work focuses on an additional aspect of racial discrimination in housing: local officials, capitulating to the housing industry, consider the possible effect government subsidised housing will have on racially segmented markets before entering some programmes. This paper explores the relationship between the size of the black population, as one indicator of the racial composition of a city, and the likelihood of city participation in public housing and Section 8 Existing housing. The quantitative analyses of US cities shows a negative relationship between the size of the black population and the likelihood of city participation in Section 8 Existing housing, a programme that provides participants the possibility of crossing segmented market boundaries. The results also suggest that the relationship between race and public housing is different than that between race and Section 8 Existing housing. Public housing does not necessarily provide participants the opportunity to cross boundaries. Rather it concentrates people, giving local officials more control over the location of poor racial minorities. Finally, the paper argues that the negative relationship between the size of the black population and the likelihood of city participation constitutes yet another form of racial discrimination in housing.     

Organicist concepts of city landscape in German planning after the second world war

The debates surrounding post-war reconstruction of Germany centred around three planning strategies as described in: the books Organische Stadtbaukunst (The Organic Art of Building Towns) (1948) by Hans Bernhard Reichow and Die Raumstadt (The Spatial City) (1949) by Walter Schwagenscheidt, as well as the 1946 exhibition Berlin plant—Erster Bericht (Berlin Plans—First Report) organized under the direction of Hans Scharoun. Despite the different political attitudes of their authors, these three planning strategies seem to be connected by the same goal: the big city was to be radically broken apart and a new green city landscape created. In order to plan and build this new city as a complex system integrated with the native landscape, the planners conceived the city to be like an organism in relation to its environment. Their shared organic conception reveals traces of natural science and nature-oriented philosophies. This investigation traces the origin of this new city landscape concept back to the intellectual-historical context at the beginning of the 20th century.     

Longer View: Planning for the Rebuilding of New Orleans

Problem: Catastrophic disasters like Hurricane Katrina disrupt urban systems, economies, and lives, and pose huge problems for local governments and planners trying to organize and finance reconstruction as quickly and effectively as possible.

Purpose: This article aims to summarize the key planning challenges New Orleans faced following the August 29, 2005 flooding in order to identify lessons planners can apply following future disasters.

Methods: In this case study we sought to observe key decisions about the recovery as they unfolded. Collectively, we spent months in New Orleans in 2005, 2006, and 2007, and interviewed leaders of all the planning efforts to date. One of us played a lead role in the design and execution of the Unified New Orleans Plan (UNOP), and all observed and/or participated in neighborhood-level planning activities.

Results and conclusions: We agree with previous findings on post-disaster recovery, confirming the importance of previous plans, citizen involvement, information infrastructure, and external resources. We also observe that the recovery of New Orleans might have proceeded more effectively in spite of the inherent challenges in post-Katrina New Orleans. Many local difficulties are a result of the slow flow of federal reconstruction funding. Despite this, the city administration also could have taken a more active leadership role in planning and information management earlier; the city's Office of Recovery Management has since improved this. On the positive side, the Louisiana Recovery Authority has been a model worth emulating by other states.

Takeaway for practice: Planning can inform actions as both proceed simultaneously. Had New Orleans planners not felt so compelled to complete plans quickly, they might have been more effective at providing reasoned analysis over time to support community actions and engaging a broader public in resolving difficult questions of restoration versus betterment. A center for collecting and distributing data and news would have better informed all parties; this remains an important need.

Research support: We received support from the Mid-America Earthquake Center, the Public Entity Risk Institute, and the New Orleans Community Support Foundation.