A systematic review of gated communities and the challenge of urban transformation in African cities

Globalization and the spread of neo-liberal models of urban restructuring have resulted in the rise in gated communities worldwide, including in Africa. The on-going scholarly debate revolves around the drivers of gated communities, their impacts and implications on the planning and management of cities. To contribute to and advance scholarly debate on gated communities and the challenge of urban transformation, we used standard systematic procedures to synthesize findings from 31 peer reviewed journal articles from 1990 to 2020, that examine the phenomenon of gated communities in African cities. Despite the differences in study settings, key findings emerge from gated community studies in Africa. Majority of the reviewed studies attribute the emergence of gated communities to the rise in crime and the search for good quality living environment. Globalization also plays an important role in facilitating new market-oriented gated communities. The globalization of lifestyles of the urban elite has also found expression in African cities. Reviewed studies are critical of gated communities for promoting spatial fragmentation, privatization of public space and local governance and for propagating socio-economic inequality and urban segregation. These issues have implications for the planning and management of cities; in terms of balancing between the need for secure neighbourhoods and promoting inclusive urban societies. The systematic review makes a case for re-thinking urban models that inform the production of new urban spaces; with a view to balance between private capital interests and the need for spatial justice.

     

从居住区规划到社区规划

本文首先讨论住宅区、居住区、社区等概念 ,并介绍社区发展与社区规划的缘起及内容。然后探讨了城市规划领域的社区规划问题 ,涉及我国城市社区规划的演进、社区规划的原则等问题。     

Creating a Village in Modern Suburbia: Parenthood and Social Capital

Local communities with good stocks of social capital nurture and support the families residing within. This qualitative study explored through the perspectives of mothers, how families with children aged 0–5 years build social capital in newer residential areas in Perth, Western Australia. Parenthood generally increased the desire to connect to one's local community, which activated and enhanced social capital. Two themes appear to drive this desire: an increased need for social support and an increased vested interest in the local community. However, newer residential areas commonly have a lag of community infrastructure needed to provide opportunities for families with young children to interact with other families. Urban planning and community sectors need to coordinate to provide infrastructure and opportunities for families with young children to connect and build social capital within their local communities.     

边缘地区的社区与城市共融共生的规划指引探索——深圳市龙岗区同乐社区规划介绍

深圳是一个没有农村的城市,最基层的管理单位就是社区,由社区股份公司做为居民利益的代表和各项事务的实施主体,但在城市的规划管理中,从宏观到微观的规划中都未能全面考虑到以社区为单位的发展需求,致使某些被法定图则（即控规）单元分割的社区无法有明确的发展指引,长久以来变成了各个单元的边缘性空间,除了保留现状没有得到任何的规划指引,也因此成为区域中的落后区域,同乐社区就是一个典型的范例,以此为例,从作为社区规划师到编制社区规划,充分感受了规划协调和融合的力量,以及规划在各个层面的效力和指导作用。     

利益冲突、权力秩序与基层治理——杭州ZJ商品房小区的个案

近年来,随着社区建设的逐步推进,城市基层社会中的各个行为主体形成不同的权利和利益并据此展开博弈。各个行动主体因为各自目标和利益有差异,从而在城市基层社区中形成了合作、竞争甚至冲突,由此城市社区成为政府、民众和其他社会组织的主要利益交汇点和博弈场所。市场背景下的城市基层社会整合难题及背后的国家、市场与社会关系的复杂化,由此引申出城市社区居民的利益冲突、基层社区的重新整合及治理现代化的议题。杭州ZJ社区居民通过自身行动呈现出来的利益诉求及诉求未能满足而引发的利益冲突和基层秩序形成的动态场景,揭示了当代中国城市社区治理的困境及其向现代治理体系转型的必要性。     

Urban Space Production in Transition: The Cases of the New Urban Areas of Hanoi

In recent decades, hundreds of master-planned new urban areas (NUAs) have developed on the urban fringes of expanding cities in Vietnam. They are promoted as a new urban planning concept in the post-reform policies. This article discusses the NUAs' planning concepts based on qualitative case studies of four NUAs in Hanoi, and on an examination of the 1990–2000 urban policies. It sheds light on transitional planning and urban space production processes in Vietnam and discusses urban quality in a rapidly urbanising Asian context. The article argues that NUAs are products of a hybrid, transitional system in which local government and the public sector form an alliance with the private sector to serve private interests in urban development. At the same time, NUAs are hybrid products of government-led, entrepreneur-driven planning and self-organising space production by the residents. The self-organising space production activities contribute to the urban quality of these new urban spaces, while the production of privatised, commodified spaces by corporate actors poses a threat to community life.     

‘The planned city sweeps the poor away…’: Urban planning and 21st century urbanisation

In recent years, attention has been drawn to the fact that now more than half of the world's population is urbanised, and the bulk of these urban dwellers are living in the global South. Many of these Southern towns and cities are dealing with crises which are compounded by rapid population growth, particularly in peri-urban areas; lack of access to shelter, infrastructure and services by predominantly poor populations; weak local governments and serious environmental issues. There is also a realisation that newer issues of climate change, resource and energy depletion, food insecurity and the current financial crisis will exacerbate present difficult conditions. As ideas that either ‘the market’ or ‘communities’ could solve these urban issues appear increasingly unrealistic, there have been suggestions for a stronger role for governments through reformed instruments of urban planning. However, agencies (such as UN-Habitat) promoting this make the point that in many parts of the world current urban planning systems are actually part of the problem: they serve to promote social and spatial exclusion, are anti-poor, and are doing little to secure environmental sustainability. Urban planning, it is argued, therefore needs fundamental review if it is to play any meaningful role in current urban issues.     

Encountering the Multiplicity of Community in Planning and Designing New Neighbourhoods

In contrast to recent understandings of community beyond place, urban partnerships of developers and policymakers focus on creating place-based communities in new neighbourhoods such as master-planned housing estates. These efforts are critiqued for ignoring the multiple ways community is experienced in everyday life as physical places take precedence over social relations and processes. Drawing on the example of a master-planned community (MPC) in Australia, this article explores some of the complexities involved in attempting to create community in these and other new neighbourhoods by comparing conceptualisations of community depicted in marketing materials with future residents' expectations and lived experience. Although some notions of community portrayed in the marketing of the estate resonated with future residents' expectations, their everyday experiences of community were broad and varied, and not confined to one particular place. In concluding, the article suggests there is greater scope for the multiplicity of community to be incorporated in the planning and design of MPCs. Specifically, policymakers could make more of partnerships with developers to advocate for the acknowledgement and inclusion of broader experiences of community in everyday life.     

PLANNERS’ ROLE IN CREATING FAMILY‐FRIENDLY COMMUNITIES: ACTION,PARTICIPATION AND RESISTANCE

A national survey of planners conducted with the American Planning Association in 2008 assesses planners’ attitudes about barriers and opportunities to creating more family‐friendly cities. The survey measured the extent to which planners promote the interests of families in zoning, housing, child care, transportation, recreation, urban design. and public participation. Regression analysis shows that communities that have more action on the ground in support of families (e.g., affordable housing, child care, walkable streets) also engage families more in the planning process and include needs of families in site planning and zoning. Action can lead to community resistance, but resistance is lower in cities that have more positive attitudes about families with children. Resistance is higher in communities that are ignorant about how to address family needs, and in communities that specify family‐friendly goals in their comprehensive plans. This research suggests the key to real action is family participation and addressing family needs in site planning and zoning.     

庐山风景名胜区居民社会问题与整合规划

在我国风景名胜区迅猛发展的同时,其社会问题日益突出。这些问题大多与风景名胜区当地居民有关。目前我国众多风景名胜区尚有相当数量的居民存在,在这种情况下,风景名胜区保护与利用的一举一措必然牵动到居民的利益,简单化的规划与管理措施引发了诸多的社会问题。本文即针对风景名胜区居民社会问题,从社会问题的5个主体入手对其进行探讨,提出整合规划的概念。同时以庐山为例,从居民入手,通过社会分层、居民参与等途径进行深入的分析,运用社区整合规划解决居民社会问题。     

国土空间规划背景下自然保护地乡村社区规划问题探讨

自然保护地乡村社区是影响自然保护成效的重要因素,其性质是特殊保护目标下的人文生态综合体.自然保护地乡村社区规划包含了比一般"村庄规划"更广义的构架,涉及社区的自然保护地规划、空间规划和部门专项规划3类.三者以不同的方式作用于乡村社区,但之间缺乏紧密的衔接和联系,而国土空间规划体系和自然保护地体系的重构为各类自然保护地乡...     

新城市街区营造——都江堰灾后重建项目"壹街区"的规划设计思想与方法

城市新区开发与建设的现状不得不令规划师反思.特别是那些在几年内建成的大规模居住区,其建成以后并没有能在较短的时间内形成具有活力的地区.除了选址、交通和配套设施之外,还有更本质层面的问题需要规划师去思考.以都江堰"壹街区"规划项目的实践为基础,以营造城市街区的方式尝试去解答这类新居住区规划与设计层面的几大问题.     

Spatial impact of urban expansion on surface water bodies—A case study of Wuhan,China

This study aims to raise the level of attention paid to surface water management issues in spatial planning and urban development processes. In the case of cities located in alluvial river plains, surface water bodies may occupy large areas but severe ecological and environmental consequences can arise if they are given insufficient weight in the planning and development processes. After discussing in general terms some of the connections between surface water bodies and urban land use we specifically examine the situation in Wuhan, one of the largest cities in China, which has many surface water bodies in its urban region. We measure and analyse land use changes between 1993 and 2004 to lakes and shallow water bodies and their riparian areas using data derived from detailed land use surveys of the city. Our results show that urban expansion has had a significant impact on Wuhan's surface water bodies and their riparian zones. The reduction, disappearance and pollution of surface water may contribute to the undervaluation of water bodies, thereby increasing the likelihood of further impacts taking place. An integrative and proactive land use planning and management system at regional strategic level and local action level is considered to be essential if surface water systems are to be conserved and improved. Increased recognition of their societal and ecological value should be reflected in more detailed attention to the spatial requirements of water bodies and riparian areas in urban planning policies.     

居民参与利益分配的自然资源型旅游小城镇规划设计初探

本文分析了旅游小城镇总体规划中居民利益缺失的源头,并以重庆市南川区黎香湖镇总体规划为例,提出了从当地居民利益出发、促进当地居民参与利益分配的具体规划措施,如合理的城乡空间开发模式和城镇建设模式、复合的旅游产业规划设计、具有当地特色的农业发展策略,等等。     

The promotion of women's cooperatives in Mexico: Is feminist technical assistance an Oxymoron?

This article examines one of the fundamental dilemmas in grass roots planning practice—how to provide planning expertise to disenfranchised clients while not creating systems of dependence among those clients on that expertise. Specifically, the article investigates attempts to provide feminist technical assistance to women in rural production cooperatives in three communities in central Mexico. The three cases provide both positive and negative insights into how to provide empowering, and feminist, technical assistance. The cases raise questions about two issues in local development planning for women: why is it that a ‘cult of expertise’ tends to develop in technical assistance agencies, and how can we develop alternative approaches that respect women's ‘local knowledge'?; and how can cooperatives construct a feminist labour process’ that integrates domestic and market relations.     

知识经济时代杭州近郊大型社区消费设施特征

基于城市消费设施环境塑造的视角,选取杭州近郊区3个典型社区开展调研分析,从中发现城市中微观尺度的社区设施环境建设相对滞后,制约了对知识型人力资本的吸引聚集,这既是由于城市经济社会发展与土地利用空间的快速扩张,也深受公共设施的市、区二元供给体制的内在影响。在3个近郊典型社区中,以教育医疗文体为核心的公共设施供给状况不佳,并呈现出社区之间的差异性,其中以相对独立的规模型、开放式的良渚文化村社区供给状况较好,封闭式、分散化的江南春城较差,除了地方政府供给体制的影响因素之外,这与各个开发商的建设力度、社区居民的经济状况密切相关。最后分别基于城市空间规划、郊区公共中心建设以及开放式社区设计等方面提出相应的策略建议,并强调要在制度体系方面协调好地方政府、开发商及社区居民之间的利益关系,由此兼顾城市经济社会发展的效率与公平问题,以更好地吸引知识型人力资本和信息技术型产业的聚集,提升城市生活环境的综合竞争力。     

基于时空尺度差异性分析的中国国家公园社区规划框架优化研究

面向问题的社区规划是中国自然保护地社区规划的经典范式。我国第一批国家公园体制试点区基本是以自然保护区、风景名胜区等自然保护地为基础的整合。研究发现,中国国家公园体制试点区社区问题存在时空尺度差异,而社区规划中缺乏针对性的对策以协调周边社区发展和社区均衡发展。基于此,建构了基于时空尺度差异性分析的社区规划优化框架。规划优化框架通过对社区问题的时空尺度差异性分析遴选出影响社区问题形成的关键影响指标,进而提出基于指标调控的空间与机制相嵌套的优化对策,并以武夷山国家公园体制试点区为例对框架进行细化与应用。     

PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH FOR ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH: ENCOUNTERING FREIRE IN THE URBAN BARRIO

ABSTRACT: The community‐based approach to health research and intervention is a model of inquiry rooted in Freire's participatory action research (PAR). We need to show, in concept and practice, what it is about PAR that may be well suited for the types of health issues we encounter in inner‐city environments. What type of learning results, how does this respond to particular health issues in the urban context, and what are the particular challenges faced in translating Freire's model into today's urban setting? To investigate these questions, we describe a recent PAR project in Southeast Los Angeles, California—an area known to some as “Asthmatown.” One salient finding of the research is that PAR allows the integration of complex and multiple forms of knowledge, and this is a necessary response to the complex and multiplex nature of cumulative impacts. There are challenges to translating the model to the urban setting, however, such as the difficulties of participation in today's urban milieu. The research leads to some lessons for practitioners, such as the need to build “constant” elements into PAR projects. Lastly, we reflect on implications of this model for institutional reform.     

Urban Policy Formulation Under Efficiency: The Case Of Auckland City Council'S Britomart Development

This paper examines a local government initiated urban development under current New Zealand legislation. It finds that planning vision for the common good of the community has been replaced by urban policy objectives of economic efficiency and minimisation of public expenditure. These new objectives also appears to negate a range of amenity and civic rights, some of which are statutory responsibilities of local government that are necessary to ensure the ongoing process of local democracy. The paper then questions the future of planning in this environment and suggests one important task for practitioners must be that of the protection, facilitation and empowerment of diverse communities through civic debate, either within, or outside of institutional structures.