Static and dynamic cultivation of bone marrow stromal cells on biphasic calcium phosphate scaffolds derived from an indirect rapid prototyping technique

The adequate regeneration of large bone defects is still a major problem in orthopaedic surgery. Synthetic bone substitute materials have to be biocompatible, biodegradable, osteoconductive and processable into macroporous scaffolds tailored to the patient specific defect. Hydroxyapatite (HA) and tricalcium phosphate (TCP) as well as mixtures of both phases, biphasic calcium phosphate ceramics (BCP), meet all these requirements and are considered to be optimal synthetic bone substitute materials. Rapid prototyping (RP) can be applied to manufacture scaffolds, meeting the criteria required to ensure bone ingrowth such as high porosity and defined pore characteristics. Such scaffolds can be used for bone tissue engineering (BTE), a concept based on the cultivation of osteogenic cells on osteoconductive scaffolds. In this study, scaffolds with interconnecting macroporosity were manufactured from HA, TCP and BCP (60 wt% HA) using an indirect rapid prototyping technique involving wax ink-jet printing. ST-2 bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) were seeded onto the scaffolds and cultivated for 17 days under either static or dynamic culture conditions and osteogenic stimulation. While cell number within the scaffold pore system decreased in case of static conditions, dynamic cultivation allowed homogeneous cell growth even within deep pores of large (1,440 mm³) scaffolds. Osteogenic cell differentiation was most advanced on BCP scaffolds in both culture systems, while cells cultured under perfusion conditions were generally more differentiated after 17 days. Therefore, scaffolds manufactured from BCP ceramic and seeded with BMSCs using a dynamic culture system are the method of choice for bone tissue engineering.     

Sol–gel method to fabricate CaP scaffolds by robocasting for tissue engineering

Highly porous calcium phosphate (CaP) scaffolds for bone-tissue engineering were fabricated by combining a robocasting process with a sol–gel synthesis that mixed Calcium Nitrate Tetrahydrate and Triethyl Phosphite precursors in an aqueous medium. The resulting gels were used to print scaffolds by robocasting without the use of binder to increase the viscosity of the paste. X-ray diffraction analysis confirmed that the process yielded hydroxyapatite and β-tricalcium phosphate biphasic composite powders. Thus, the scaffold composition after crystallization of the amorphous structure could be easily modified by varying the initial Ca/P ratio during synthesis. The compressive strengths of the scaffolds are ~6 MPa, which is in the range of human cancellous bone (2–12 MPa). These highly porous scaffolds (~73 vol% porosity) are composed of macro-pores of ~260 μm in size; such porosity is expected to enable bone ingrowth into the scaffold for bone repair applications. The chemistry, porosity, and surface topography of such scaffolds can also be modified by the process parameters to favor bone formation. The studied sol–gel process can be used to coat these scaffolds by dip-coating, which induces a significant enhancement of mechanical properties. This can adjust scaffold properties such as composition and surface morphology, which consequently may improve their performances.     

Biomorphous porous hydroxyapatite-ceramics from rattan (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Calamus Rotang</Emphasis>)

The three-dimensional, highly oriented pore channel anatomy of native rattan (Calamus rotang) was used as a template to fabricate biomorphous hydroxyapatite (Ca₅(PO₄)₃OH) ceramics designed for bone regeneration scaffolds. A low viscous hydroxyapatite-sol was prepared from triethyl phosphite and calcium nitrate tetrahydrate and repeatedly vacuum infiltrated into the native template. The template was subsequently pyrolysed at 800°C to form a biocarbon replica of the native tissue. Heat treatment at 1,300°C in air atmosphere caused oxidation of the carbon skeleton and sintering of the hydroxyapatite. SEM analysis confirmed detailed replication of rattan anatomy. Porosity of the samples measured by mercury porosimetry showed a multimodal pore size distribution in the range of 300 nm to 300 μm. Phase composition was determined by XRD and FT-IR revealing hydroxyapatite as the dominant phase with minimum fractions of CaO and Ca₃(PO₄)₂. The biomorphous scaffolds with a total porosity of 70–80% obtained a compressive strength of 3–5 MPa in axial direction and 1–2 MPa in radial direction of the pore channel orientation. Bending strength was determined in a coaxial double ring test resulting in a maximum bending strength of ~2 MPa.     

Robotic dispensing of composite scaffolds and in vitro responses of bone marrow stromal cells

The development of bioactive scaffolds with a designed pore configuration is of particular importance in bone tissue engineering. In this study, bone scaffolds with a controlled pore structure and a bioactive composition were produced using a robotic dispensing technique. A poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) and hydroxyapatite (HA) composite solution (PCL/HA = 1) was constructed into a 3-dimensional (3D) porous scaffold by fiber deposition and layer-by-layer assembly using a computer-aided robocasting machine. The in vitro tissue cell compatibility was examined using rat bone marrow stromal cells (rBMSCs). The adhesion and growth of cells onto the robotic dispensed scaffolds were observed to be limited by applying the conventional cell seeding technique. However, the initially adhered cells were viable on the scaffold surface. The alkaline phosphatase activity of the cells was significantly higher on the HA–PCL than on the PCL and control culture dish, suggesting that the robotic dispensed HA–PCL scaffold should stimulate the osteogenic differentiation of rBMSCs. Moreover, the expression of a series of bone-associated genes, including alkaline phosphatase and collagen type I, was highly up-regulated on the HA–PCL scaffold as compared to that on the pure PCL scaffold. Overall, the robotic dispensed HA–PCL is considered to find potential use as a bioactive 3D scaffold for bone tissue engineering. Seok-Jung Hong and Ishik Jeong contributed equally.     

Scaffolds with a standardized macro-architecture fabricated from several calcium phosphate ceramics using an indirect rapid prototyping technique

Calcium phosphate ceramics, commonly applied as bone graft substitutes, are a natural choice of scaffolding material for bone tissue engineering. Evidence shows that the chemical composition, macroporosity and microporosity of these ceramics influences their behavior as bone graft substitutes and bone tissue engineering scaffolds but little has been done to optimize these parameters. One method of optimization is to place focus on a particular parameter by normalizing the influence, as much as possible, of confounding parameters. This is difficult to accomplish with traditional fabrication techniques. In this study we describe a design based rapid prototyping method of manufacturing scaffolds with virtually identical macroporous architectures from different calcium phosphate ceramic compositions. Beta-tricalcium phosphate, hydroxyapatite (at two sintering temperatures) and biphasic calcium phosphate scaffolds were manufactured. The macro- and micro-architectures of the scaffolds were characterized as well as the influence of the manufacturing method on the chemistries of the calcium phosphate compositions. The structural characteristics of the resulting scaffolds were remarkably similar. The manufacturing process had little influence on the composition of the materials except for the consistent but small addition of, or increase in, a beta-tricalcium phosphate phase. Among other applications, scaffolds produced by the method described provide a means of examining the influence of different calcium phosphate compositions while confidently excluding the influence of the macroporous structure of the scaffolds.     

Proliferation and function of MC3T3-E1 cells on freeze-cast hydroxyapatite scaffolds with oriented pore architectures

Previous work by the authors showed that hydroxyapatite (HA) scaffolds with different types of oriented microstructures and a unique ‘elastic–plastic’ mechanical response could be prepared by unidirectional freezing of suspensions. The objective of the present work was to evaluate the in vitro cellular response to these freeze-cast HA scaffolds. Unidirectional scaffolds with approximately the same porosity (65–70%) but different pore architectures, described as ‘lamellar’ (pore width = 25 ± 5 μm) and ‘cellular’ (pore diameter = 100 ± 10 μm), were evaluated. Whereas both groups of scaffolds showed excellent ability to support the proliferation of MC3T3-E1 pre-osteoblastic cells on their surfaces, scaffolds with the cellular-type microstructure showed far better ability to support cell proliferation into the pores and cell function. These results indicate that freeze-cast HA scaffolds with the cellular-type microstructure have better potential for bone repair applications.     

Synthesis and characterization of porous κ-carrageenan/calcium phosphate nanocomposite scaffolds

The polysaccharide κ-carrageenan was used in the production of macroporous composites containing nanosized hydroxyapatite, with potential application in bone tissue engineering. Biodegradable composite scaffolds were prepared combining in situ co-precipitation of calcium phosphates with a freeze-drying technique. The effect of the Ca/P molar ratio and total ceramic content on the chemical composition, microstructure and mechanical performance of the scaffolds were investigated by thermal analysis, X-ray diffraction, FTIR, transmission electron microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, He porosimetry and compressive tests. A mixture of amorphous calcium phosphates and/or nanosized calcium-deficient hydroxyapatite was obtained in most of the composites. The formation of hydroxyapatite was induced by higher Ca/P ratios, probably due to competing reticulation of the biopolymer with calcium cations. The composite scaffolds presented interconnected pores (50–400 μm) and porosity around 97% and calcium phosphates were uniformly dispersed in the κ-carrageenan matrix. Both microstructure and compressive mechanical properties of the scaffolds were affected by the ceramic content and, for a Ca/P molar ratio of 1.67, maximum compressive strength was achieved for a ceramic content of ca. 25 wt%. Above this value the structural integrity of the composite was damaged and a dramatic decrease in mechanical strength was verified. Compressive mechanical properties of the composites were improved by increasing Ca/P atom ratio.     

Resorbable, porous glass scaffolds by a salt sintering process

Resorbable, porous glass scaffolds for tissue engineering were prepared by sintering borate glass with salt (sodium chloride). Subsequently, the sodium chloride was dissolved in water resulting in a highly porous material. By modifying the process parameters including salt particle size, salt volume percentage, sintering temperature and sintering time, sintered matrix structures were optimized. Analysis of the structure data indicates that the 50 vol% glass—50 vol% salt with particle sizes from 250–315 μm sintered at a temperature of 520°C for 10 min resulted in an optimum structure with 76.5% porosity and 29.3 N/cm² compressive strength. The process of HAP formation on the scaffolds in 0.25 M K₂HPO₄ solutions with pH 9.0 at 37°C was evaluated. The structural changes were analyzed by X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy. An amorphous phosphate was formed on the surface of the scaffolds within 1d and crystalline hydroxyapatite (HA) within 10d.     

Calcium silicate ceramic scaffolds toughened with hydroxyapatite whiskers for bone tissue engineering

Calcium silicate possessed excellent biocompatibility, bioactivity and degradability, while the high brittleness limited its application in load-bearing sites. Hydroxyapatite whiskers ranging from 0 to 30 wt.% were incorporated into the calcium silicate matrix to improve the strength and fracture resistance. Porous scaffolds were fabricated by selective laser sintering. The effects of hydroxyapatite whiskers on the mechanical properties and toughening mechanisms were investigated. The results showed that the scaffolds had a uniform and continuous inner network with the pore size ranging between 0.5 mm and 0.8 mm. The mechanical properties were enhanced with increasing hydroxyapatite whiskers, reached a maximum at 20 wt.% (compressive strength: 27.28 MPa, compressive Young's modulus: 156.2 MPa, flexural strength: 15.64 MPa and fracture toughness: 1.43 MPa·m^1/2) and then decreased by addition of more hydroxyapatite whiskers. The improvement of mechanical properties was due to whisker pull-out, crack deflection and crack bridging. Moreover, the degradation rate decreased with the increase of hydroxyapatite whisker content. A layer of bone-like apatite was formed on the scaffold surfaces after being soaked in simulated body fluid. Human osteoblast-like MG-63 cells spread well on the scaffolds and proliferated with increasing culture time. These findings suggested that the calcium silicate scaffolds reinforced with hydroxyapatite whiskers showed great potential for bone regeneration and tissue engineering applications.     

Comparison of a low molecular weight and a macromolecular surfactant as foaming agents for injectable self setting hydroxyapatite foams: Polysorbate 80 versus gelatine

Hydroxyapatite foams are potential synthetic bone grafting materials or scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. A novel method to obtain injectable hydroxyapatite foams consists in foaming the liquid phase of a calcium phosphate cement. In this process, the cement powder is incorporated into a liquid foam, which acts as a template for macroporosity. After setting, the cement hardens maintaining the macroporous structure of the foam. In this study a low molecular weight surfactant, Polysorbate 80, and a protein, gelatine, were compared as foaming agents of a calcium phosphate cement. The foamability of Polysorbate 80 was greater than that of gelatine, resulting in higher macroporosity in the set hydroxyapatite foam and higher macropore interconnectivity. Gelatine produced less interconnected foams, especially at high concentrations, due to a higher liquid foam stability. However it increased the injectability and cohesion of the foamed paste, and enhanced osteoblastic-like cell adhesion, all of them important properties for bone grafting materials.     

Physicochemical properties and cytotoxicities of Sr-containing biphasic calcium phosphate bone scaffolds

This study demonstrates a new biomaterial system composed of Sr-containing hydroxyapatite (Sr-HA) and Sr-containing tricalcium phosphate (Sr-TCP), termed herein Sr-containing biphasic calcium phosphate (Sr-BCP). Furthermore, a series of new Sr-BCP porous scaffolds with tunable structure and properties has also been developed. These Sr-BCP scaffolds were obtained by in situ sintering of a series of composites formed by casting various Sr-containing calcium phosphate cement (Sr-CPC) into different rapid prototyping (RP) porous phenol formaldehyde resins, which acted as the negative moulds for controlling pore structures of the final scaffolds. Results show that the porous Sr-BCP scaffolds are composed of Sr-HA and Sr-TCP. The phase composition and the macro-structure of the Sr-BCP scaffold could be adjusted by controlling the processing parameters of the Sr-CPC pastes and the structure parameters of the RP negative mould, respectively. It is also found that both the compressive strength (CS) and the dissolving rate of the Sr-BCP scaffold significantly vary with their phase composition and macropore percentage. In particular, the compressive strength achieves a maximum CS level of 9.20 ± 1.30 MPa for the Sr-BCP scaffold with a Sr-HA/Sr-TCP weight ratio of 78:22, a macropore percentage of 30% (400–550 μm in size) and a total-porosity of 63.70%, significantly higher than that of the Sr-free BCP scaffold with similar porosity. All the extracts of the Sr-BCP scaffold exhibit no cytotoxicity. The current study shows that the incorporation of Sr plays an important role in positively improving the physicochemical properties of the BCP scaffold without introducing obvious cytotoxicity. It also reveals a potential clinical application for this material system as bone tissue engineering (BTE) scaffold.     

Synchrotron X-ray microtomography for assessment of bone tissue scaffolds

X-ray microtomography (μCT) is a popular tool for imaging scaffolds designed for tissue engineering applications. The ability of synchrotron μCT to monitor tissue response and changes in a bioactive glass scaffold ex vivo were assessed. It was possible to observe the morphology of the bone; soft tissue ingrowth and the calcium distribution within the scaffold. A second aim was to use two newly developed compression rigs, one designed for use inside a laboratory based μCT machine for continual monitoring of the pore structure and crack formation and another designed for use in the synchrotron facility. Both rigs allowed imaging of the failure mechanism while obtaining stress–strain data. Failure mechanisms of the bioactive glass scaffolds were found not to follow classical predictions for the failure of brittle foams. Compression strengths were found to be 4.5–6 MPa while maintaining an interconnected pore network suitable for tissue engineering applications.     

Low temperature fabrication of high strength porous calcium phosphate and the evaluation of the osteoconductivity

Porous NaO₂–MgO–CaO–P₂O₅ bioglass doped beta-tri-calcium phosphate (β-TCP) bioceramic possessing high mechanical properties and well pore structure with high porosity and high pore connectivity has been prepared through dipping method with the porous polyurethane as the pore forming template. The sintering mechanism and the mechanical properties of the bioglass doped β-TCP scaffold have been investigated by the X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis, Scanning electron microscope (SEM) and thermal differential analysis (DTA). The scaffold’s in vivo osteoconductivity has been evaluated by implantation of scaffolds into the femurs of New Zealand rabbits. The results show that the porous structure can achieve the densification process at a low temperature about 950°C by a solid solution sintering mechanism and hence dense macropore scaffold with a compressive strength of 4.32 MPa when the porosity is 75% has been obtained. The in vivo test shows that the Na₂O–MgO–CaO–P₂O₅ bioglass doped porous β-TCP bioceramic has a relatively fast bone formation after implantation; after 1 month implantation new deposited bone tissue has been detected on the strut of the porous scaffold and degraded particles also has been found on the surface of the new formed bone. After 6 months implantation the porous scaffold has been thoroughly covered with new formed bone. Results show that the Na₂O–MgO–CaO–P₂O₅ bioglass doped porous β-TCP bioceramic is potential bone tissue engineering scaffold for orthopedic use.     

Preparation of porous scaffold from hydroxyapatite powders

Hydroxyapatite (HA) powder was prepared by wet chemical method. The hydroxyapatite phase was stable up to 1250 °C without decomposition to beta-tricalcium phosphate. Interconnected porous hydroxyapatite scaffold resembling trabecular bone structure was developed from polymeric replica sponge method. The prepared scaffold has 60 vol.% porosity having a major fraction of ~ 50–125 μm pore diameter. The pore content, pore morphology, pore interconnectivity of scaffold and their compressive strength were dependent on the solid loading and binder content. In-vitro bioactivity and bioresorbability confirmed the feasibility of the developed scaffolds.     

Development of nano-sized hydroxyapatite reinforced composites for tissue engineering scaffolds

Nano-sized hydroxyapatite (nanoHA) reinforced composites, mimicking natural bone, were produced. Examination by transmission electron microscopy revealed that the nanoHA particles had a rod-like morphology, 20–30 nm in width and 50–80 nm in length. The phase composition of hydroxyapatite was confirmed by X-ray diffraction. The nanoHA particles were incorporated into poly-2-hydroxyethylmethacrylate (PHEMA)/polycaprolactone (PCL) matrix to make new nanocomposites: nanoHA-PHEMA/PCL. Porous nanocomposite scaffolds were then produced using a porogen leaching method. The interconnectivity of the porous structure of the scaffolds was revealed by non-destructive X-ray microtomography. Porosity of 84% was achieved and pore sizes were approximately around 300–400 μm. An in vitro study found that the nanocomposites were bioactive as indicated by the formation of a bone-like apatite layer after immersion in simulated body fluid. Furthermore, the nanocomposites were able to support the growth and proliferation of primary human osteoblast (HOB) cells. HOB cells developed a well organized actin cytoskeletal protein on the nanocomposite surface. The results demonstrate the potential of the nanocomposite scaffolds for tissue engineering applications for bone repair.     

Physical and cytocompatibility properties of bioactive glass–polyvinyl alcohol–sodium alginate biocomposite foams prepared via sol–gel processing for trabecular bone regeneration

In the present work, biocomposite foams of bioactive glass along with polyvinyl alcohol and sodium alginate are designed and developed as a potential biomaterial for bone regeneration. These biocomposite foams have a low density of 0.92 g/cm³, providing desired property for bone tissue engineering applications. Biocomposite foams were prepared via surfactant foaming. Scanning electron microscopic characterization revealed pore size of 200–500 μm of the biocomposite foams. When these materials were incubated in simulated body fluid, hydroxyapatite layer formation was observed on the material surface. To confirm the cell viability and proliferation on these materials, MTT [3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide] assay was performed with NIH 3T3 fibroblast cells and the results revealed good biocompatibility with the biocomposite foams. Cell adhesion studies further confirmed the biocompatibility of the scaffolds via cell attachment and ECM production. The optimally synthesized biocomposite foams had a good combination of physical properties with compressive strength of 1.64 MPa and elastic modulus of 18 MPa. In view of the favorable combination of physical and biological properties, the newly developed materials are considered to be suitable for regeneration of trabecular bone.     

Development of macroporous calcium phosphate scaffold processed via microwave rapid drying

Porous hydroxyapatite (HA) scaffold has great potential in bone tissue engineering applications. A new method to fabricate macroporous calcium phosphate (CP) scaffold via microwave irradiation, followed by conventional sintering to form HA scaffold was developed. Incorporation of trisodium citrate dihydrate and citric acid in the CP mixture gave macroporous scaffolds upon microwave rapid drying. In this work, a mixture of β-tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP), calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), trisodium citrate dihydrate, citric acid and double distilled de-ionised water (DDI) was exposed to microwave radiation to form a macroporous structure. Based on gross eye examinations, addition of trisodium citrate at 30 and 40 wt.% in the CP mixture (β-TCP and CaCO₃) without citric acid indicates increasing order of pore volume where the highest porosity yield was observed at 40 wt.% of trisodium citrate addition and the pore size was detected at several millimeters. Therefore, optimization of pore size was performed by adding 3–7 wt.% of citric acid in the CP mixture which was separately mixed with 30 and 40 wt.% of trisodium citrate for comparison purposes. Fabricated scaffolds were calcined at 600 °C and washed with DDI water to remove the sodium hydroxycarbonate and sintered at 1250 °C to form HA phase as confirmed in the X-ray diffraction (XRD) results. Based on Archimedes method, HA scaffolds prepared from 40 wt.% of trisodium citrate with 3–7 wt.% of citric acid added CP mixture have an open and interconnected porous structure ranging from 51 to 53 vol.% and observation using Scanning electron microscope (SEM) showed the pore size distribution between 100 and 500 μm. The cytotoxicity tests revealed that the porous HA scaffolds have no cytotoxic potential on MG63 osteoblast-like cells which might allow for their use as biomaterials.     

Preparation and properties of calcium phosphate cements incorporated gelatin microspheres and calcium sulfate dihydrate as controlled local drug delivery system

To develop high macroporous and degradable bone cements which can be used as the substitute of bone repairing and drug carriers, cross-linked gelatin microspheres (GMs) and calcium sulfate dihydrate (CSD) powder were incorporated into calcium phosphate bone cement (CPC) to induce macropores, adjust drug release and control setting time of α-TCP–liquid mixtures after degradation of GMs and dissolution of CSD. In this study, CSD was introduced into CPC/10GMs composites to offset the prolonged setting time caused by the incorporation of GMs, and gentamicin sulphate (GS) was chosen as the model drug entrapped within the GMs. The effects of CSD amount on the cement properties, drug release ability and final macroporosity after GMs degradation were studied in comparison with CPC/GMs cements. The resulting cements presented reduced setting time and increased compressive strength as the content of CSD below 5 wt%. Sustained release of GS was obtained on at least 21 days, and release rates were found to be chiefly controlled by the GMs degradation rate. After 4 weeks of degradation study, the resulting composite cements appeared macroporous, degradable and suitable compressive strength, suggesting that they have potential as controlled local drug delivery system and for cancellous bone applications.     

Porous calcium phosphate ceramics prepared by coating polyurethane foams with calcium phosphate cements

Porous calcium phosphates have important biomedical applications such as bone defect fillers, tissue engineering scaffolds and drug delivery systems. While a number of methods to produce the porous calcium phosphate ceramics have been reported, this study aimed to develop a new fabrication method. The new method involved the use of polyurethane foams to produce highly porous calcium phosphate cements (CPCs). By firing the porous CPCs at 1200 °C, the polyurethane foams were burnt off and the CPCs prepared at room temperature were converted into sintered porous hydroxyapatite (HA)-based calcium phosphate ceramics. The sintered porous calcium phosphate ceramics could then be coated with a layer of the CPC at room temperature, resulting in high porosity, high pore interconnectivity and controlled pore size.     

Morphological,mechanical, and biocompatibility characterization of macroporous alumina scaffolds coated with calcium phosphate/PVA

In bone tissue engineering, a highly porous artificial extracellular matrix or scaffold is required to accommodate cells and guide the tissue regeneration in three-dimension. Calcium phosphate (CaP) ceramics are widely used for bone substitution and repair due to their biocompatibility, bioactivity, and osteoconduction. However, compared to alumina ceramics, either in the dense or porous form, the mechanical strength achieved for calcium phosphates is generally lower. In the present work, the major goal was to develop a tri-dimensional macroporous alumina scaffold with a biocompatible PVA/calcium phosphate coating to be potentially used as bone tissue substitute. This approach aims to combine the high mechanical strength of the alumina scaffold with the biocompatibility of calcium phosphate based materials. Hence, the porous alumina scaffolds were produced by the polymer foam replication procedure. Then, these scaffolds were submitted to two different coating methods: the biomimetic and the immersion in a calcium phosphate/polyvinyl alcohol (CaP/PVA) slurry. The microstructure, morphology and crystallinity of the macroporous alumina scaffolds samples and coated with CaP/PVA were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM/EDX) analysis. Also, specific surface area was assessed by BET nitrogen adsorption method and mechanical behavior was evaluated by axial compression tests. Finally, biocompatibility and cytotoxicity were evaluated by VERO cell spreading and attachment assays under SEM. The morphological analysis obtained from SEM photomicrograph results has indicated that 3D macroporous alumina scaffolds were successfully produced, with estimated porosity of over 65% in a highly interconnected network. In addition, the mechanical test results have indicated that porous alumina scaffolds with ultimate compressive strength of over 3.0 MPa were produced. Concerning to the calcium phosphate coatings, the results have showed that the biomimetic method was not efficient on producing a detectable layer onto the alumina scaffolds. On the other hand, a uniform and adherent inorganic–organic coating was effectively formed onto alumina macroporous scaffold by the immersion of the porous structure into the CaP/PVA suspension. Viable VERO cells were verified onto the surface of alumina porous scaffold samples coated with PVA–calcium phosphate. In conclusion, a new method was developed to produce alumina with tri-dimensional porous structure and uniformly covered with a biocompatible coating of calcium phosphate/PVA. Such system has high potential to be used in bone tissue engineering.