重水堆核电厂典型严重事故氢气风险分析

核电厂严重事故下的氢气控制一直是核电厂关注的热点问题之一。本文采用重水堆一体化事故分析程序建立了主热传输系统(PHTS)模型、排管容器及端屏蔽系统、堆腔以及安全壳模型。分别选取代表高压熔堆和低压熔堆的全厂断电及出口集管大破口失水事故始发严重事故序列,从堆芯氧化产氢以及系统热工水力行为出发,对重水堆产氢特性及点火器的消氢效果进行了研究。分析表明:严重事故下随着堆芯冷却恶化,排管容器内发生锆水反应而产生氢气,排管容器和堆腔内的水对氢气产生有较长时间的抑止作用,随着排管容器和堆腔内水的逐渐烧干,排管容器蠕变失效,熔融堆芯落入堆腔发生堆芯熔融物与混凝土的相互作用而产生大量氢气。当氢气点火器失效时,安全壳隔间内氢气体积份额持续增加,存在燃爆风险;点火器开启时,隔间中的氢气混合气体在较低浓度下点燃,氢气燃烧模式处于慢速燃烧区。     

严重事故下安全壳内环境条件计算分析

参照对先进压水堆安全壳的要求,结合恰希玛二期工程严重事故缓解措施,对大破口失水事故(LLOCA)叠加安注失效、小破口失水事故(SLOCA)叠加安注失效、全厂断电(SBO)叠加柴油机驱动的辅助给水失效等严重事故序列可能影响安全壳内环境的条件及缓解措施进行了分析.结果表明,恢复喷淋可以明显地降低安全壳内的压力和温度,有效地改善安全壳内的环境,从而改善各种仪表设备的工作条件.     

冷段大破口失水事故长期冷却及硼浓度特性研究

文章采用先进的热工水力分析程序CATHAR,对百万千瓦级ACP1000核电厂冷段大破口失水事故冷热段同时安注时CCFL作用下的上腔室及堆芯的流动换热特性、硼浓度特性进行了研究,并分析了破损环路热段安注流量大小对堆芯冷却的影响。研究表明：在热段安注总流量为614 m3/h时,破损环路对应热段安注流量的不同,不会对流入堆芯冷却有较大影响,破损环路热段安注流量差异不会对堆芯冷却有较大影响;切换至同时安注后堆芯硼浓度很快与系统达到平衡。     

严重事故管理导则入口条件研究

严重事故管理导则的入口是从电厂应急运行规程(EOP)向严重事故管理导则(SAMG)转换的条件,也是严重事故缓解行动的重要依据。本文选取失去四级电源导致的典型高压熔堆序列以及大破口失水事故(LLOCA)导致的典型低压熔堆序列,根据严重事故堆芯剧烈氧化机理,得出了燃料温度、氢气产生速率及产氢量、入口集管过冷度以及慢化剂液位的关系。结果表明入口集管过冷度小于0且持续十几分钟,同时慢化剂系统的状态指示慢化剂液位低于6 900mm,可以作为严重事故管理的入口条件。最后,阐述了目前电厂EOP向SAMG转换的机制,并提出了改进的意见。     

严重事故条件下安全壳响应模拟研究

压水堆核电厂发生严重事故期间,从主系统释放的蒸汽、氢气以及下封头失效后进入安全壳的堆芯熔融物均对安全壳的完整性构成威胁。以国内典型二代加压水堆为研究对象,采用MAAP程序进行安全壳响应分析。选取了两种典型的严重事故序列：热管段中破口叠加设备冷却水失效和再循环高压安注失效,堆芯因冷却不足升温熔化导致压力容器失效,熔融物与混凝土发生反应（MCCI）,安全壳超压失效;冷管段大破口叠加再循环失效,安全壳内蒸汽不断聚集,发生超压失效。通过对两种事故工况的分析,证实了再循环高压安注、安全壳喷淋这两种缓解措施对保证安全壳完整性的重要作用。     

AP1000小破口叠加重力注射失效严重事故分析

应用新版MELCOR程序,建立了AP1000一二回路、非能动安全系统及安全壳隔室的热工水力模型,并以热段小破口叠加重力注射系统失效事故为例,对该严重事故进程在压力容器内阶段进行模拟计算,对缓解措施的功能进行了分析和评价。结果表明：自动卸压系统（ADS1～4）的成功实施,可使来自堆芯补水箱和安注箱的冷却水快速有效地注入堆芯,在冷却水完全耗尽前,堆芯始终处于淹没的状态。ADS4爆破阀开启后,使回路压力快速与安全壳压力平衡;非能动安全壳冷却系统对抵御严重事故下由于衰变热和非冷凝气体带来的缓慢升温升压是行之有效的措施;点火器在氢气浓度较低时点火,缓解了安全壳大空间发生全局燃爆而引发安全壳超压失效的风险,但连续点火燃烧会引起局部隔室温升远超出设计温度而危及后备缓解设施的存活。     

CANDU堆核电厂全厂断电始发严重事故进程研究

采用一体化分析程序建立了适用于CANDU堆核电厂的严重事故分析模型。该模型主要包括热传输系统、慢化剂系统、端屏蔽系统、蒸汽发生器二次侧系统等。针对全厂断电始发的严重事故进行了相应的热工水力现象分析,得知慢化剂系统和端屏蔽系统内的大量水使事故进程大幅推迟。同时,对重要时间进程与ISAAC2.0程序结果进行了初步比对,两者的结果基本吻合。分析结果可为开展重水堆严重事故现象及缓解措施研究提供技术参考。     

多物理耦合方法在严重事故仿真软件SimSA开发中的应用

为满足核电厂全范围模拟机对严重事故过程仿真的需求,自主开发了严重事故仿真软件SimSA,能模拟从设计基准事故到严重事故的主要事故过程,并能准确给出相关进程的计算结果。SimSA包含3大主要模块：热工水力模块（Therm）、堆芯行为模块（Core）以及安全壳行为模块（Cont）。其中,Therm与Core两个模块的耦合过程中采用了SCDAP/RELAP5相似的基于过程机理的耦合方法。本文结合SimSA软件的具体情况介绍了这种耦合方法的实现过程,并采用耦合后的程序对大破口叠加安注失效及全厂断电叠加辅助给水丧失两个典型初因事故导致的严重事故序列进行了计算,将计算结果与相同初始条件下MAAP4的计算结果进行对比分析。结果表明,SimSA中采用的这种耦合方式是成功的。     

核电厂堆芯冷却恶化恢复安注措施研究

本文使用RELAPSCDAPSIM3.4程序建立核电厂事故分析模型,选取了典型的中、小冷段破口事故作为分析序列,针对堆芯冷却恶化现象采取恢复安注措施进行了详细的热工水力计算。着重分析了在辅助给水有效情况下,重启安注的时间窗口、启动上充应对安注失效情况下的有效性、有无安注箱注入敏感性等。分析结果表明:当堆芯出口温度超过923K(即650℃),恢复安注建立应急堆芯冷却流量措施对于中、小破口是有效的;启动上充对较小破口效果明显;安注箱有效注入对中破口冷却恶化事故缓解有重要作用。     

严重事故下核电站安全壳内氢气分布及控制分析

使用安全壳分析程序CONTAIN计算分析了百万千瓦级压水堆核电站严重事故下安全壳内的氢气浓度分布.分别对一回路冷段大破口失水(LB-LOCA)叠加应急堆芯冷却系统(ECCS)失效(不包括非能动的安注箱)事故和全厂断电(SBO)叠加汽轮机驱动的应急给水泵失效事故两个严重事故序列进行了计算.计算结果表明,不同严重事故下,安全壳各隔间对氢气控制系统的要求不同.氢气控制系统的设计必须满足不同事故下的法规要求,提高电站的安全性.     

An evaluation of the severe accident management strategies for CANDU-6 type plants

This paper provides an evaluation of the mitigation effects for the severe accident management strategies of the Wolsong plants which are typical CANDU-6 type reactors. The evaluation includes the effect of the following six mitigation strategies: (1) injection into the primary heat transport system (PHTS), (2) injection into the calandria vessel, (3) injection into the calandria vault, (4) reduction of the fission product release, (5) control of the reactor building condition, (6) reduction of the reactor building hydrogen. The tested scenario is a loss of coolant accident with a small out-of-core break, and the thermal hydraulic and severe accident phenomenological analyses were implemented by using the ISAAC computer program. The calculation results show that the most effective means for a primary decay heat removal is a low pressure safety injection, that for a calandria vessel integrity is an end-shield cooling injection, and that for a reactor building integrity is a pressure control via local air coolers. Besides the above, the usefulness of each safety component was evaluated in this analysis.     

An application of the new way to prevent core melting in pressure tube reactors (CANDU type)

The pressure tube reactors, especially CANDU type, have a calandria low pressure vessel (near to atmospheric pressure) immersed into a concrete vault filled with water. The accident analysis done by ELFIN-HTCELL code for the channel heat up and by fluid flow PHOENICS code as applied for moderator cooling system efficacy, showed that even the moderator cooling system operates, in some transients sequences where the normal heat sinks are lost, and the top core pressure tubes can reach burst conditions, which means that the fission product secondary retaining barrier gets destroyed, and yet the core can be cooled by water admission through the ruptured tubes from the emergency core cooling system (ECC), if it is available. Otherwise, if in many accident sequences the moderator cooling system remains the ultimate heat sink for the core fuel, and it is not available even from the accident start, a core melt appears. Taking into account the “natural” advantage offered by the presence of both pools in calandria and in the vault, separated by the calandria vessel, the introduction of density locks between them could be a safety passive design solution. When the temperature of moderator water gets higher the density lock cold-hot interface loss stability and thus the density locks get “open” fully permitting the admission of the cool water from the vault pool in calandria. Therefore, by natural circulation the decay heat is transferred via an air-cooling tower, and no mechanical moving parts are needed to open this circuit. Also, if the vault water is borated, it can be used to stop the nuclear reaction when the normal shutdown systems are not available and a positive reactivity coefficient appears, e.g. large loss of coolant accident (LOCA).     

Analysis on hydrogen risk mitigation in severe accidents for Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor

Hydrogen source term and hydrogen mitigation under severe accidents is evaluated for most nuclear power plants (NPPs) after Fukushima Daiichi accident. Two units of Pressurized Heavy Water Reactor (PHWR) are under operating in China, and hydrogen risk control should be evaluated in detail for the existing design. The distinguish feature of PHWR, compared with PWR, is the horizontal reactor core surrounded by moderator in calandria vessel (CV), which may influence the hydrogen source term. Based on integral system analysis code of PHWR, the plant model including primary heat transfer system (PHTS), calandria, end shield system, reactor cavity and containment has been developed. Two severe accident sequences have been selected to study hydrogen generation characteristic and the effectiveness of hydrogen mitigation with igniters. The one is Station Blackout (SBO) which represents high-pressure core melt accident, and the other is Large Break Loss of Coolant Accident (LLOCA) at reactor outlet header (ROH) which represents low-pressure core melt accident. Results show that under severe accident sequences, core oxidation of zirconium–steam reaction will produce hydrogen with deterioration of core cooling and the water in CV and reactor cavity can inhibits hydrogen generation for a relatively long time. However, as the water dries out, creep failure happens on CV. As a result, molten core falls into cavity and molten core concrete interaction (MCCI) occurs, releasing a large mass of hydrogen. When hydrogen igniters fail, volume fraction of hydrogen in the containment is more than 15% while equivalent amount of hydrogen generate from a 100% fuel clad-coolant reaction. As a result, hydrogen risk lies in the deflagration–detonation transition area. When igniters start at the beginning of large hydrogen generation, hydrogen mixtures ignite at low concentration in the compartments and the combustion mode locates at the edge of flammable area. However, the power supply to igniters should be ensured.     

大型先进压水堆IVR策略评估和裂变产物分布计算

大型先进压水堆通过堆内熔融物滞留（IVR）策略来缓解严重事故后果以降低安全壳失效风险。其中堆腔注水系统（CIS）被引入来实现IVR。本文使用严重事故分析软件计算大型先进压水堆在冷管段双端断裂事故下的事故进程、热工水力行为、堆芯退化过程和下封头熔融池传热行为,评估能动CIS的事故缓解能力。计算结果表明,事故后72 h,下封头外表面热流密度始终低于临界热流密度（CHF）,表明IVR策略有效。此外,计算分析了惰性气体、非挥发性和挥发性裂变产物的释放和迁移行为。计算发现,IVR下更多的放射性裂变产物分布在主系统内,壁面核素再悬浮形成气溶胶的行为被消除,安全壳壁面上沉积的核素被大量冷凝水冲刷进入底部水池。总体来说,IVR策略能更好地管理放射性核素分布,减小放射性泄漏威胁。     

Analysis of severe core damage accident progression for the heavy water reactor

In this study,the severe accident progression analysis of generic Canadian deuterium uranium reactor 6 was preliminarily provided using an integrated severe accident analysis code.The selected accident sequences were multiple steam generator tube rupture and large break loss-of-coolant accidents because these led to severe core damage with an assumed unavailability for several critical safety systems.The progressions of severe accident included a set of failed safety systems normally operated at full power,and initiative events led to primary heat transport system inventory blow-down or boil off.The core heat-up and melting,steam generator response,fuel channel and calandria vessel failure were analyzed.The results showed that the progression of a severe core damage accident induced by steam generator tube rupture or large break loss-of-coolant accidents in a CANDU reactor was slow due to heat sinks in the calandria vessel and vault.     

Severe accident development modeling and evaluation for CANDU

Romania as UE member got new challenges for its nuclear industry. Romania operates since 1996 a CANDU nuclear power reactor and since 2007 the second CANDU unit. In EU are operated mainly PWR reactors, so, ours have to meet UE standards. Safety analysis guidelines require to model nuclear reactors severe accidents.Starting from previous studies, a CANDU degraded core thermal hydraulic model was developed. The initiating event is a LOCA, with simultaneous loss of moderator cooling and the loss of emergency core cooling system (ECCS). This type of accident is likely to modify the reactor geometry and will lead to a severe accident development. When the coolant temperature inside a pressure tube reaches 1000 °C, a contact between pressure tube and calandria tube occurs and the decay heat is transferred to the moderator. Due to the lack of cooling, the moderator, eventually, begins to boil and is expelled, through the calandria vessel relief ducts, into the containment. Therefore the calandria tubes (fuel channels) uncover, then disintegrate and fall down to the calandria vessel bottom. All the quantity of calandria moderator is vaporized and expelled, the debris will heat up and eventually boil. The heat accumulated in the molten debris will be transferred through the calandria vessel wall to the shield tank water, which surrounds the calandria vessel. The thermal hydraulics phenomena described above are modeled, analyzed and compared with the existing data.     

Core coolability of an ATR by heavy water moderator in situations beyond design basis accidents

In the case of a loss-of-coolant accident (LOCA) with coincident loss of emergency coolant injection (LOECI), core cooling is generally very severe. However, as the ATR plant has heavy water at about 60°C in the core, decay heat can be removed by the heavy water cooling system. Separate-effects tests relating to heavy water cooling were conducted with each setup. The important thermal hydraulics was radiation heat transfer, ballooning of a pressure tube, contact conductance between the pressure tube and a calandria tube and critical heat flux of the calandria tube. Constants and correlations obtained by the tests were incorporated into several codes to assess the core cooling. Long term core cooling capability with the heavy water cooling system was assessed. The core was cooled without melting under the postulated events due to inherent characteristics of the ATR.     

压水堆严重事故下封头热斑计算

压水堆堆芯熔化事故情况下,下封头热斑会造成压力容器局部过热,导致临界热流密度发生。利用FLUENT软件对堆芯熔化事故时的下封头热斑进行计算,从流动和换热角度预测热斑导致的下封头薄弱环节。计算结果表明:堆芯熔化事故时,压力容器下封头存在两处最薄弱的位置,分别为下封头正下方正对外部冷却水位置和氧化壳与压力容器交界处。特别是在氧化壳与压力容器交界处,由于多种原因导致临界热流密度发生,使得该处熔化严重。通过设置延伸小管和附加冷却水可延迟压力容器壁面熔穿的时间。     

Adapting and applying SCDAP/RELAP5 to CANDU in-vessel retention studies

In CANDU reactors, the cool moderator surrounding the calandria tubes provides a potential heat sink following an accident initiator if the emergency coolant injection fails. However, in scenarios when a subsequent loss of all heat sinks occurs, the fuel channels fail and ultimately, the entire reactor core collapses and relocates into the bottom of calandria vessel (CV), which is externally cooled by shield-tank water. Previous studies using MAAP4-CANDU and ISAAC computer codes were found to investigate the long-term coolability of the CV in the late phase of core degradation in course of a severe accident. SCDAP/RELAP5 was applied in a previous work of the authors to the study of the in-vessel retention issue using the COUPLE models with user-defined slumping inside the 2D COUPLE mesh. This option allows for thermal and mechanical analyses of the reactor lower head avoiding the necessity to calculate the preceding course of core degradation during the accident. The former analyses used an equivalent spherically shaped CV while, for the present paper, calculations are performed with COUPLE routines modified to properly use the option for a horizontal pipe in plane geometry. The paper describes the modifications and the application of the resulted SCDAP/RELAPSIM/MOD3.4 code version to the study of the coolability of a CV starting with a dry debris bed. The vessel rupture time is compared to the ISAAC calculated value for a LOCA with loss of all heat sinks and no recovery actions. Parametric studies are performed in order to quantify the effect of several identified sources of uncertainty: boundary conditions of the vessel above debris, gap heat transfer coefficient and metallic fraction of zirconium inside the debris.