Fracture analysis of a camshaft made from nodular cast iron

The camshaft is a shaft having some semi-oval protrusions which are designed to control the open and close intervals of the inlet and exhaust poppet valves in the gasoline and diesel engines. Rotation of the cam which takes its movement from the crankshaft via a chain or a trigger belt causes its profile to slide against the smooth flat closed end of a cylindrical member known as a follower. In this study, fracture analysis of a camshaft of an automobile engine is carried out. The analyzed camshaft is fractured after a very short period of usage of the car. For the determination of the failure reason, the microstructure and chemical compositions of the camshaft material are determined. Some fractographic studies are carried out to asses the fracture conditions. A stress analysis is also carried out by the finite element technique for the determination of highly stressed regions on the camshaft.     

Effect of cutting speed on the performance of Al2O3 based ceramic tools in turning nodular cast iron

This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation on the effect of cutting speed in turning nodular cast iron with alumina (Al₂O₃) based ceramic tools. Three different alumina based ceramic cutting tools were used, namely TiN coated Al₂O₃ + TiCN mixed ceramic, SiC whisker reinforced Al₂O₃ and uncoated Al₂O₃ + TiCN mixed ceramic tool. Turning experiments were carried out at four different cutting speeds, which were 300, 450, 600 and 750 m/min. Depth of cut and feed rate were kept constant at 1 mm and 0.1 mm/rev, respectively, throughout the experiments. Tool performance was evaluated with respect to tool wear, surface finish produced and cutting forces generated during turning. Uncoated Al₂O₃ + TiCN mixed ceramic was the worst performing tool with respect to tool wear and was the best with respect to surface finish. SiC whisker reinforced Al₂O₃ exhibited the worst performance with respect to cutting forces. If tool wear, surface finish and cutting force results are considered together, among the three tools studied, TiN coated Al₂O₃ + TiCN mixed ceramic tool is the most suitable one for turning nodular cast iron, especially at high cutting speeds (V_c > 600 m/min).     

Fatigue crack propagation of bainitic nodular cast iron

The effects of austempering temperature and isothermal transformation time on fatigue crack growth rate in a ductile iron with a bainitic structure have been studied. Crack growth rates in austempered samples were compared with those in materials with a ‘bullseye’ casting structure. Using scanning electron microscopy, the mechanism of the fatigue crack growth can be understood by observing the fracture surface of a fatigue specimen. X-ray diffractometry was used to determine the volume fraction of retained austenite. It can be concluded that the volume fraction of retained austenite, the fracture mode and the matrix microstructure are closely related to the fatigue crack propagation rate and the fracture mode.     

Failure analysis of a crankshaft made from ductile cast iron

This paper describes the failure analysis of a diesel engine crankshaft used in a truck, which is made from ductile cast iron. The crankshaft was found to break into two pieces at the crankpin portion before completion of warranty period. The crankshaft was induction hardened. An evaluation of the failed crankshaft was undertaken to assess its integrity that included a visual examination, photo documentation, chemical analysis, micro-hardness measurement, tensile testing, and metallographic examination. The failure zones were examined with the help of a scanning electron microscope equipped with EDX facility. Results indicate that fatigue is the dominant mechanism of failure of the crankshaft. It was observed that the fatigue cracks initiated from the fillet region of the crankpin-web. The absence of the hardened case in the fillet region and the presence of free graphite and nonspheroidal graphite in the microstructure of the crankshaft made fatigue strength decrease to lead to fatigue initiation and propagation in the weaker region and premature fracture.     

GB/T 229-2007关于夏比V型缺口冲击试样几何参数的规定及其加工方法

现行的冲击试验标准GB/T 229-2007,对夏比V型缺口冲击试样几何参数的规定较1994年颁发的旧标准GB/T 229—1994变化较大,通过将新标准、旧标准以及美标ASTM E23—02a对冲击试样几何参数的规定进行对比分析,认为GB/T 229-2007相比GB/T 229-1994对夏比V型缺口冲击试样几何参数的放宽和规定更加科学、合理。另外还对目前夏比V型缺口冲击试样的几种加工方法进行了比较分析,认为组合机床是冲击试样加工设备的发展方向。     

Fatigue crack nuclei in austempered ductile cast iron

ABSTRACT Short fatigue crack nuclei in austempered ductile cast iron have been studied using optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, atomic force microscopy and X‐ray microtomography and by electron backscatter diffraction analysis. Fatigue cracks nucleate at graphite nodules and shrinkage microporosity. The crack nuclei are arrested and retarded by barriers in the microstructure, by either blocking of slip at boundaries or owing to the requirement for tilt and twist of the stage I crystallographic crack at grain boundaries. These observations indicate that both the size of the defects, such as graphite nodules and microporosity, and the size of the prior austenite grains control the largest crack nucleus that can develop, and hence determine the component fatigue limit.     

3D analyses of the effect of weld orientation in Charpy specimens

Three dimensional transient analyses of Charpy impact specimens are carried out. The material response is characterized by an elastic-viscoplastic constitutive relation for a porous plastic solid, with adiabatic heating due to plastic dissipation and the resulting thermal softening accounted for. The onset of cleavage is taken to occur when the average of the maximum principal stress over a specified volume attains a critical value. The weld analyzed here is overmatched, so that the yield strength for the weld is larger than that of the base material. Analyses are carried out for specimens where the notch is cut parallel to the surface of the test piece, as well as more complex geometries where the notched surface of the specimen is rotated relative to the surface of the test piece. It is found that even for a homogeneous material the brittle-ductile transition can be much affected by three dimensional effects; for example, curvature of the deformed free surface gives rise to a stress increase that promotes cleavage. Furthermore, for the rotated specimens the weld geometry relative to the notched specimen surface is so complex that only a full 3D analysis is able to account for the interaction of failure in the weld material, base material and heat affected zone (HAZ). For these rotated specimens the location where the notch crosses the thin layer of HAZ, i.e. whether this location is near the center of the specimen or near the free specimen edge, makes a large difference in the response.     

Influence of nitriding on the fatigue behavior and fracture micromechanisms of nodular cast iron

Surface modification processes are increasingly used to fully exploit material potential in fatigue critical applications because fatigue strength is sensitive to surface conditions. Nitriding is extensively adopted with ferrous materials because it forms a hard and strong surface layer and a system of superficial compressive residual stresses. Fatigue, however, is strongly dependent also on defects and inhomogeneity. When nitriding is applied to nodular cast iron, the relatively thin hardened layer (about 300 μm) contains graphite nodules (diameter of the order of 30 μm), casting defects and a heterogeneous matrix structure. The paper presents and discusses the influence of nitriding on the fatigue response and fracture mechanisms of nodular cast iron. A ferritic nodular cast iron and a synthetic melt with different content of effective ferrite were initially gas-nitrided. Then, (i) structural analysis of nitrided layers, (ii) fatigue testing with rotating bending specimens, and (iii) fatigue fracture surface inspection were performed. Performance and scatter in fatigue performance is discussed by selective inspection of fracture surfaces and identification fracture micromechanisms. A semiempirical model explains observed trends in test results and is used for the process optimization. __________ Translated from Problemy Prochnosti, No. 1, pp. 85–88, January–February, 2008.     

大小试样冲击功比值变化规律的研究

通过夏比Ｖ型缺口冲击试验，研究了结构钢小尺寸试样的冲击功与标准试样冲击功的比值在系列温度冲击试验中的变化规律，并述评了用等效比值数确定小尺寸试样冲击功指标的问题。     

玻璃模具用球墨/蠕墨复合铸铁的研究

介绍了用稀土和Ｋ－Ｎａ复合变质处理而形成的球墨／蠕墨复合铸铁玻璃模具材质的组织,力学性能及热特性,探讨了影响这些性能的因素,试用表明,这种材和于玻璃具有着良好的使用性能和较高的经济价值。     

Probabilistic high cycle fatigue behaviour of nodular cast iron containing casting defects

Theoretical and experimental investigations were combined to characterize the influence of surface casting defects (shrinkages) on the high cycle fatigue (HCF) reliability. On fracture surfaces of fatigue samples, the defect is located at the surface. The shape used for the calculation is a spherical void with variable radius. Finite-element simulations were then performed to determine stress distribution around defects for different sizes and different loadings. Correlated expressions of the maximum hydrostatic stress and the amplitude of the shear stress were obtained by using the response surface technique. The loading representative point in the HCF criterion was then transformed into a scattering surface, which has been obtained by a random sampling of the defect sizes. The HCF reliability has been computed by using the Monte Carlo simulation method. Tension and torsion fatigue tests were conducted on nodular cast iron with quantification of defect size on the fracture surface. The S – N curves show a large fatigue life scattering; shrinkages are at the origin of the fatal crack leading to the final failure. The comparison of the computed HCF reliability to the experimental results shows a good agreement. The capability of the proposed model to take into account the influence of the range of the defect sizes and the type of its statistical distribution has been demonstrated. It is shown that the stress distribution at the fatigue limit is log-normal, which can be explained by the log-normal defect distribution in the nodular cast iron tested.     

Cell model simulation of void growth in nodular cast iron under cyclic loading

The failure of cast iron under high plastic cyclic strains is controlled by the mechanisms of formation, growth and coalescence of voids. A cell model approach is used to simulate nodular cast iron as a periodic array of loosely bonded spherical inclusions in the matrix material. The models are analyzed by the finite element method under cyclic loading while keeping the stress triaxiality constant. Different types of matrix hardening are used: isotropic, kinematic and combined hardening. The graphite inclusions are simulated by a rigid body. Deformation and void growth are studied in dependence on stress triaxiality and strain range. In most cases after a few cycles a non-symmetric stationary mesoscopic cyclic stress–strain curve is established. The deformation response and the development of the void volume fraction are strongly affected by the value of triaxiality. The void volume is incrementally increasing with each load cycle in a ratcheting manner. The void growth rate depends on the chosen hardening type and is smallest for kinematic hardening. The comparison with simulations in absence of graphite inclusions revealed that void evolution is favored by the inclusions.     

Evaluation of dynamic fracture toughness KId by Hopkinson pressure bar loaded instrumented Charpy impact test

A novel method for measuring the dynamic fracture toughness, K_Id, using a Hopkinson pressure bar loaded instrumented Charpy impact test is presented in this paper. The stress intensity factor dynamic response curve (K_I(t)−t) for a fatigue-precracked Charpy specimen is evaluated by means of an approximate formula. The onset time of crack initiation is experimentally detected using the strain gauge method. The value of K_Id is determined from the critical dynamic stress intensity factor at crack initiation. A K_Id value for a high-strength steel is obtained using this method at a stress-intensity-factor rate () greater than 10⁶ MPa .     

Improvement of toughness of high chromium white cast iron: duplex ferritic-austenitic matrix

It is attempted to enhance the impact toughness of industrially used high chromium white cast iron (WCI) without sacrificing wear resistance. The microstructure is engineered by cyclic annealing to obtain features such as duplex grain matrix, where austenite envelops ferrite grain, refined M₇C₃ carbide. The newly cast and heat-treated alloy shows remarkable impact toughness i.e. 13J with improved wear resistance. The fracture micro-mechanism is studied through extensive scanning electron microscopy and it is ascertained that enhanced impact toughness results from crack arrest at duplex grain boundaries. A few other toughness enhancing features are also discussed. The results are compared with standard ASTM grade Class-III high chromium WCI and are found to be encouraging.     

Direct evidence for dislocation-free zone in Fe–5% Si fractured by Charpy impact test

Defect structure in the subsurface region below a fracture surface of an Fe–5% Si specimen that had been fractured by a Charpy impact test at 77 K was examined by transmission electron microscopy. The specimen was fabricated by a focused ion beam technique to enable analysis of areas that had been carefully selected on the basis of observation. Near the nucleation site of the crack, many dislocations were observed just beneath the fracture surface. Far away from the nucleation site, no dislocations at all were observed in the subsurface region of the fracture surface. Between these two extreme positions, a dislocation-free zone was observed.     

Large scale testing and statistical analysis of dynamic fracture toughness of ductile cast iron

The present paper deals with the experimental determination and statistical analysis of dynamic fracture toughness values of ductile cast iron. K_Id data from 140 mm thick single edge bend specimens of two dynamic fracture toughness test series on ductile cast iron from heavy-walled castings were analysed.At first, the statistical analysis of data at −40 °C was done based on ASME Code Case N-670 using a two-parameter Weibull distribution function. Weibull analyses of three samples covering different pearlite contents (?4%, ?9%, ?20%) were performed and characteristics of the distribution functions as well as two-sided confidence intervals were calculated. The calculated characteristics show that K_Id of ductile cast iron decreases with increasing pearlite content.In a second step, the applicability of the Master curve procedure according to ASTM E 1921 to ductile cast iron materials was investigated and it was formally used for statistical analysis of ductile cast iron dynamic fracture toughness data. Although the Master curve method was originally introduced for static fracture toughness data of ferritic steels, the successful individual analyses performed here support the engineering way taken to apply the method to ductile cast iron materials too. The results of both methods, the Master curve procedure and the ASME Code Case N-670, show acceptable congruity. At the same time, it is concluded from the present study that further investigations and experiments are required to improve precision and for verification before the results could be applied within component safety analyses.     

Determination of dynamic crack resistance of ductile cast iron using the compliance ratio key curve method

The compliance ratio method is an analytical approach for instantaneous crack length determination in dynamic single-specimen J-R curve testing of ferritic ductile cast iron (DCI). Comparison testing at room temperature and −40 °C was applied to PCVN and SE(B)15 specimens to examine their performance and suitability for the dynamic key curve method for DCI. An experimental reference database of dynamic crack resistance curves was set up by low-blow multiple-specimen tests and used to validate the results of the CR method. The influence of test temperature, microstructure, loading rate and specimen geometry on fracture behavior of the tested DCI was investigated in great detail and these parameters were linked to fracture mechanical properties. The results obtained show that the CR method is suited to establish valid dynamic crack resistance curves for both types of specimen. Nevertheless, SE(B)15 specimens are preferred for dynamic J-R curve determination of DCI based on their advantages such as higher accuracy.     

Study in the variation of mechanical properties of nodular cast iron depending upon section thickness

Cast iron has become a popular cast metal material which is widely used in modern industry and today's technology because of its low cost and desirable properties such as good castability, convenient machining properties, better wear resistance, etc. This paper is concerned with the variation of mechanical properties depending on section thickness of nodular cast iron. Firstly manufacturing process of GGG40 (EN‐GJS‐400‐15/DIN 1693 or 60‐40‐18/ASTM A536) nodular (ductile) cast iron was performed. Sand mould casting was only used as a molding process. Following, convenient moulds were prepared and the casting process was carried out in moulds that have different diameters (≤30 mm) to examine the cooling rate effects to the mechanical properties. Finally, tensile, hardness, metallography and fatigue tests were applied to cast materials test specimens. The results show that the cooling rate which is related to the section thickness affects the mechanical properties clearly.     

烧结Cr15高铬铸铁组织与性能的研究

为研发耐磨性能优良、成本相对低廉的高铬铸铁,本文分别以亚共晶、过共晶的水雾化Cr15高铬铸铁粉末为原料,采用超固相线液相烧结工艺制备了烧结高铬铸铁(SHCCI),并对其显微组织、力学性能和冲击磨粒磨损工况下的耐磨性能进行对比研究。结果表明,烧结高铬铸铁主要由M7C3碳化物、马氏体和奥氏体组成;在亚共晶烧结高铬铸铁中,通过电解腐蚀萃取的M7C3碳化物三维形貌呈珊瑚状,沿晶界均匀分布,材料抗冲击耐磨性能优良;在过共晶烧结高铬铸铁中,优先形成的初生碳化物可能成为共晶碳化物的生长基底,形成核-壳结构的M7C3碳化物,沿晶界相互连接呈网状,严重割裂基体。亚共晶、过共晶烧结高铬铸铁的力学性能分别为:硬度HRC63.9、HRC64.3,冲击韧性7.92、3.04 J/cm^2,抗弯强度2112.65、1624.87 MPa。     

Effect of TiN Particles and Grain Size on the Charpy Impact Transition Temperature in Steels

The toughness of ferritic steels is influenced by the grain size distribution,second phase,precipitates and coarse inclusions.In this work an examination of the effect of coarse TiN particles(0.5 μm) and ferrite grain size on the Charpy impact transition temperature in high strength low alloyed steels has been carried out.Steels with high Ti content(up to 0.045 wt%),have been heat-treated and furnace cooled to obtain a ferrite-pearlite microstructure with different ferrite grain sizes.Coarse TiN particle size and ferrite grain size distributions have been measured and Charpy impact testing has been carried out.Scanning electron microscopy(SEM) analysis has been used to measure the grain boundary carbide thickness and to determine if the coarse TiN particles are acting as cleavage initiation sites by fractographic analysis.The Charpy ductile-brittle transition temperatures(DBTT) have been predicted using standard literature equations,and compared to the measured values.The relationship between the ferrite grain size and coarse TiN particle size and number density in terms of whether the coarse TiN particles act as effective cleavage initiation sites is discussed in this paper.