A reformulation of Proctor's unified theory for matching-task phenomena.

An internal-noise principle is proposed as a replacement for R. W. Proctor's (see record 1981-24888-001) inhibition principle, based on the speed advantage for "same" over "different" judgments and the fact that false/different responses often outnumber false/same responses, especially with simultaneous presentation. Proctor's priming principle is modified, basing it on a criterion shift instead of an increased efficiency in encoding, and it is shown that an external-noise (heterogeneity-of-difference) principle is needed to account for the faster "different" judgments often found with nonalphanumeric stimuli (e.g., tones). Amalgamating the noisy-operator theory, which can account for both internal-noise and external-noise effects, with this modification of Proctor's theory produces a more unified and comprehensive single-processor theory that can better account for the RT and the error data. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A unified theory for matching-task phenomena.

Studies of perceptual and cognitive matching often find (a) that same judgments are faster than different judgments (the same–different disparity) and (b) that same judgments to physically identical stimuli are faster than those to nominally identical, but physically dissimilar, stimuli (the name–physical disparity). The most widely accepted explanations of these phenomena propose quite different bases for them. The present author develops a single theoretical framework that accounts for both phenomena via a review of the literature and results from 4 experiments with 54 undergraduates. Three processes are shown to contribute to the RT differences for single-letter pairs: the level of processing at which the match is performed, facilitation in the rate at which repeated stimuli are encoded, and inhibition that occurs when competing name codes are activated. The relationship between the same–different disparity and the name–physical disparity is clarified, and a wide range of additional phenomena obtained with the matching task are organized within the framework. The theory also relates the matching-task phenomena to more general processing principles apparent in other areas of research. (136 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Paradigmatic behaviorism, unified theory, unified theory construction methods, and the Zeitgeist of separatism.

Describes a method and philosophy of theory construction, the aim of which is the unification of various areas and theories of psychology as well as the resolution of traditional schisms in this science. The need to encourage efforts to create unified theory generally, such that additional examples of such theory emerge, as well as standards for evaluating these theories is discussed. Psychology has had the means for creating empirical knowledge in abundance, and it must now develop the conceptual tools to organize this knowledge. (106 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Expression theory and the preference reversal phenomena.

Previous research has confounded judgment versus choice with the response scale used to express preference. When these factors are crossed in a 2?×?2 design, 6 pairs of preference reversals are possible. Experiment 1 demonstrates that all of these reversals exist in one-outcome gambles. We then develop expression theory, which assumes that the basic evaluation of a gamble is expressed on various scales via a subjective interpolation process. A quantitative model is developed that accounts for both the magnitude and direction of the various reversals. In Experiment 2, the model correctly predicts that the strength of reversals is weakened using two-outcome gambles. Nevertheless, 5 of the 6 reversals are still significant. In Experiment 3, empirical violations of dominance are demonstrated and the results are shown to be consistent with expression theory. In Experiment 4, the model is used to predict ratings from prices and vice versa. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Toward a unified theory of similarity and recognition.

A new theory of similarity, rooted in the detection and recognition literatures, is developed. The general recognition theory assumes that the perceptual effect of a stimulus is random but that on any single trial it can be represented as a point in a multidimensional space. Similarity is a function of the overlap of perceptual distributions. It is shown that the general recognition theory contains Euclidean distance models of similarity as a special case but that unlike them, it is not constrained by any distance axioms. Three experiments are reported that test the empirical validity of the theory. In these experiments the general recognition theory accounts for similarity data as well as the currently popular similarity theories do, and it accounts for identification data as well as the longstanding "champion" identification model does. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Control and information in the intrapersonal sphere: An extension of cognitive evaluation theory.

Extended findings that support cognitive evaluation theory to intrapersonal processes by exploring the effects of informational vs controlling feedback, when self-selected and administered vs other-administered, and in conditions of task-involvement (intended to create an informational orientation in relation to the activity) vs ego-involvement (intended to create a controlling orientation in relation to the activity). 128 undergraduates working on a hidden figures task received either an ego- or task-involving induction and then a series of 3 puzzle problems for which half of the Ss received informational feedback and the other half controlling feedback. Half the Ss had the feedback self-administered, and half had it administered by the experimenter. After puzzle-solving, Ss were left alone with additional puzzles and magazines and were observed to see if they worked on the puzzles. Finally, Ss completed a questionnaire assessing their interest and attitudes toward the target activity. Results confirm that controlling feedback, whether self- or other administered, undermined intrinsic motivation relative to task-involvement. Results are discussed in terms of the application of cognitive evaluation theory to intrapersonal processes and self-control theories. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Psychosomatic phenomena: An extension of Wright.

Comments on L. Wright's (see record 1978-12629-001) discussion of the shortcomings of the traditional concept of psychosomatic disorders (PSD). The concept of PSD is outmoded because it sets up a false dichotomy by suggesting that few physical disorders are caused by psychological factors. Current evidence indicates that psychosocial factors are of varying importance. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

On data, methods, and theory: An epistemological evaluation of psychology.

Argues that psychology, in virtue of its strict hypotheticalism and faithful adherence to scientific conventionality, had foreclosed the possibility of discovery in its own practice. Psychology's "scientific" character has rendered it less scientific. In light of its ambiguous philosophical underpinning in the assumption of positivism and scientific realism, psychology has tended to disqualify other competing epistemologies out of hand; consequently, it has generated very little coherent theory. Psychology's extant failure to disambiguate its fundamental postulates, combined with its relative methodological exclusivity, has rendered it somewhat blind to its past and augurs poorly for its future. Transcendental realism is discussed as possibly a more apposite philosophical substrate, which, if understood and faithfully applied, would liberalize psychology epistemologically and render it more philosophically coherent. (French abstract) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

A physiological model for motion-stereo integration and a unified explanation of Pulfrich-like phenomena

Many psychophysical and physiological experiments indicate that visual motion analysis and stereoscopic depth perception are processed together in the brain. However, little computational effort has been devoted to combining these two visual modalities into a common framework based on physiological mechanisms. We present such an integrated model in this paper. We have previously developed a physiologically realistic model for binocular disparity computation (Qian, 1994). Here we demonstrate that under some general and physiological assumptions, our stereo vision model can be combined naturally with motion energy models to achieve motion-stereo integration. The integrated model may be used to explain a wide range of experimental observations regarding motion-stereo interaction. As an example, we show that the model can provide a unified account of the classical Pulfrich effect (Morgan & Thompson, 1975) and the generalized Pulfrich phenomena to dynamic noise patterns (Tyler, 1974; Falk, 1980) and stroboscopic stimuli (Burr & Ross, 1979).     

The four elementary forms of sociality: Framework for a unified theory of social relations.

The motivation, planning, production, comprehension, coordination, and evaluation of human social life may be based largely on combinations of 4 psychological models. In communal sharing, people treat all members of a category as equivalent. In authority ranking, people attend to their positions in a linear ordering. In equality matching, people keep track of the imbalances among them. In market pricing, people orient to ratio values. Cultures use different rules to implement the 4 models. In addition to an array of inductive evidence from many cultures and approaches, the theory has been supported by ethnographic field work and 19 experimental studies using 7 different methods testing 6 different cognitive predictions on a wide range of Ss from 5 cultures. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

The power of environmental adaptation. Florence Nightingale''s original theory for nursing practice

Although generally recognized as the founder of modern nursing, Florence Nightingale has been criticized for her apparent lack of support of women's issues, including suffrage. This article examines the primary and supporting literature surrounding this topic. Findings indicate that Nightingale developed a complex set of beliefs that supported women as individuals rather than from a gender perspective. She did, in fact, support the concept of women's suffrage but did not give it priority. Victorian women suffered from lack of legal status, education, financial independence, and support from either the family or church as social institutions. Therefore, Nightingale's conception of nursing as a secular, educated profession cannot be overemphasized as a benchmark in the developing importance of women in the social system.     

Is a "refinement' of attribution theory necessary to accommodate the learned helplessness reformulation? A critique of the reformulation of Abramson, Seligman, and Teasdale.

In their reformulation of the learned helplessness model, L. Y. Abramson et al (1978) added a global–specific dimension to those of internal–external and stable–unstable and used all 3 dimensions to construct a 3-way classification for types of helplessness. It appears, however, that the 3 attributional dimensions can be derived directly from H. H. Kelley's (1967) original criteria of consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness. Thus it is suggested that Kelley's model can adequately account for the reformulated helplessness model of Abramson et al. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Is a "refinement" of attribution theory necessary to accommodate the learned helplessness reformulation? A critique of the reformulation of Abramson, Seligman, and Teasdale.

Suggests that the 3-way model of learned helplessness (global/specific, internal/external, stable/unstable) proposed by L. Y. Abramson et al (see record 1979-00305-001) can be derived from H. H. Kelley's (1967) original criteria of consensus, consistency, and distinctiveness. It is also suggested that the Abramson model suffers from circularity but does add the insight that, in the case of the internal–external distinction, a person's helplessness may be affected by other people's degree of helplessness. (3 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Implicit dimensions of idiography and nomothesis: A reformulation.

Asserts that, contrary to the opinion of R. Holt (see record 1965-01668-001), the idiography vs nomothesis debate is still very much alive. After tracing the origin of the terms from G. Allport and then their evolution over the decades, the author takes the position that idiography and nomothesis have a clear and useful purpose if only a crucial theory–method bifurcation is upheld. By recasting the debate in terms of a new theory–method matrix, the vital implications of the debate are clarified and placed within the broad perspective of the philosophy of science. (51 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)     

Pride, prejudice, and ambivalence: Toward a unified theory of race and ethnicity.

For more than a century, hundreds of psychologists have studied race and ethnicity. Yet this scholarship, like American culture at large, has been ambivalent, viewing race and ethnicity both as sources of pride, meaning, and motivation as well as sources of prejudice, discrimination, and inequality. Underlying this ambivalence is widespread confusion about what race and ethnicity are and why they matter. To address this ambivalence and confusion, as well as to deepen the American conversation about race and ethnicity, the article first examines the field's unclear definitions and faulty assumptions. It then offers an integrated definition of race and ethnicity--dynamic sets of historically derived and institutionalized ideas and practices--while noting that race, although often used interchangeably with ethnicity, indexes an asymmetry of power and privilege between groups. Further, it shows how psychology's model of people as fundamentally independent, self-determining entities impedes the field's--and the nation's--understanding of how race and ethnicity influence experience and how the still-prevalent belief that race and ethnicity are biological categories hinders a more complete understanding of these phenomena. Five first propositions of a unified theory of race and ethnicity are offered. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)