Effect of gas empty bed contact time on performances of various types of rotating drum biofilters for removal of VOCs

The effects of gas empty bed contact time (EBCT), biofilter configuration, and types of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were evaluated to assess the performance of rotating drum biofilters (RDBs), especially at low EBCT values. Three types of pilot-scale RDBs, a single-layer RDB, a multi-layer RDB, and a hybrid RDB, were examined at various gas EBCTs but at a constant VOC loading rate. Diethyl ether, toluene, and hexane were used separately as model VOC. When EBCT increased from 5.0 to 60s at a constant VOC loading rate of 2.0kgCOD/(m(3)day), ether removal efficiency increased from 73.1% to 97.6%, from 81.6% to 99.9%, and from 84.0% to 99.9% for the single-layer RDB, the multi-layer RDB, and the hybrid RDB, respectively, and toluene removal efficiency increased from 76.4% to 99.9% and from 84.8% to 99.9% for the multi-layer RDB and the hybrid RDB, respectively. When hexane was used as the model VOC at a constant loading rate of 0.25kgCOD/(m(3)day), hexane removal efficiency increased from 31.1% to 57.0% and from 29.5% to 50.0% for the multi-layer RDB and hybrid RDB, respectively. The single-layer, multi-layer, and hybrid RDBs exhibited, respectively, the lowest, middle, and highest removal efficiencies, when operated under similar operational loading conditions. Hexane exhibited the lowest removal efficiency, while diethyl ether displayed the highest removal efficiency. The data collected at the various EBCT values correlated reasonably well with a saturation model. The sensitivity of removal efficiency to EBCT varied significantly with EBCT values, VOC properties, and biofilter configurations. Process selection and design for RDB processes should consider these factors.     

Treatment of a colored groundwater by ozone-biofiltration: pilot studies and modeling interpretation

Pilot studies investigated the fates of color, dissolved organic carbon (DOC), and biodegradable organic matter (BOM) by the tandem of ozone plus biofiltration for treating a source water having significant color (50 cu) and DOC (3.2 mg/l). Transferred ozone doses were from 1.0 to 1.8 g O3/g C. Rapid biofilters used sand, anthracite, or granular activated carbon as media with empty-bed contact time (EBCT) up to 9 min. The pilot studies demonstrated that ozonation plus biofiltration removed most color and substantial DOC, and increasing the transferred ozone dose enhanced the removals. For the highest ozone dose, removals were as high as 90% for color and 38% for DOC. While most of the color removal took place during ozonation, most DOC removal occurred in the biofilters, particularly when the ozone dose was high. Compared to sand and anthracite biofilters, the GAC biofilter gave the best performance for color and DOC removal, but some of this enhanced performance was caused by adsorption, since the GAC was virgin at the beginning of the pilot studies. Backwashing events had no noticeable impact of the performance of the biofilters. The Transient-State, Multiple-Species Biofilm Model (TSMSBM) was used to interpret the experimental results. Model simulations show that soluble microbial products, which comprised a significant part of the effluent BOM, offset the removal of original BOM, a factor that kept the removal of DOC relatively constant over the range of EBCTs of 3.5-9 min. Although improved biofilm retention, represented by a small detachment rate, allowed more total biofilm accumulation and greater removal of original BOM, it also caused more release of soluble microbial products and the build up of inert biomass in the biofilm. Backwashing had little impact on biofilter performance, because it did not remove more than 25% of the biofilm under any condition simulated.     

Comparative measurements of microbial activity in drinking water biofilters

Tetrazolium reduction assays, phospholipid analysis, and 16S rRNA (rDNA) sequence analysis were applied to assess the distribution, composition and activity of microbial communities developing in biofilters treating non-ozonated and ozonated drinking water. The response of media-attached biomass to both operating temperature (3 degrees C vs. > 12 degrees C) and ozone application point was assessed. As judged by 2-(p-iodo-phenyl)-3-(p-nitrophenyl)-s-phenyl tetrazolium chloride (INT) reduction, the dehydrogenase activity in biofilter systems that were operated with non-ozonated water was 55% lower than in identical filters operating with ozonated water. There was no significant difference between the microbiological activity measured in a biofilter series treating ozonated water and an identical series where ozonated water was introduced at an intermediate point. The biomass levels in biofilter systems that were operated with ozonated water were 47% higher on average than identical systems operated with non-ozonated water. Operating temperature had no significant impact on total biomass levels; however, specific dehydrogenase activity was 70% higher in systems operated at ambient temperatures (> 12 degrees C) than in systems held at 3 degrees C. Phospholipid and rDNA analysis suggests that there was a community structure response to ozone application and operating temperature, but no response to different ozone application points.     

Size selective continuous flow filtration method for detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia

We describe a size selective continuous flow filtration method for detecting Cryptosporidium oocyst and Giardia cyst in finished water. Twenty liters of finished water spiked with Cryptosporidium oocysts (110) and Giardia cysts (60) were filtered through macro (5.0–10.0 μm) and micro (3.0 μm) pore-sized polycarbonate-track-etch (PCTE) membrane filters housed into two separate 47 mm diameter filter holders joined with a stainless steel nipple. The macro-pore-sized filters removed larger unwanted particles while allowing the Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts to pass through, these being subsequently captured on the micro-pore-sized filter. The eluted oocysts and cysts were transferred onto the well-slide, stained by IFA and examined microscopically. The mean recovery efficiencies obtained for Cryptosporidium oocysts using the filter pairs of macro 5 μm and micro 3 μm, macro 8 μm and micro 3 μm, and macro 10 μm and micro 3 μm were 67.3%, 77.2–85.0% and 76.9–82.2%, respectively. Whereas the recovery rates for Giardia cysts using the same filter pairs were 0, 55 and 77.1%. The filter pair having the pore size of macro 10 μm and micro 3 μm was found to be most efficient in the simultaneous detection of Cryptosporidium and Giardia in the finished water. This method is simple, easy, rapid and economical.     

Development of an immunoassay for a quaternary ammonium compound, benzyldimethyldodecylammonium chloride

A competitive enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (CELISA), based on polyclonal antibodies, was developed to measure benzyldimethyldodecylammonium chloride (BDD₁₂AC), a component of benzalkonium chloride (BAK). The polyclonal antibodies recognized free benzyldimethyldodecylammonium bromide (BDD₁₂AB) in an indirect competitive ELISA with a 50% inhibition (IC₅₀) of 0.66±0.20 μg/ml and a detection limit of 0.043±0.033 μg/ml. The two other components of BAK, benzyldimethyltetradecylammonium chloride (BDT₁₄AC) and benzyldimethylhexadecylammonium chloride (BDH₁₆AC), were recognized to varying degrees by the antibodies. The antibodies did not cross-react with other compounds such as fatty acids and alcohols, amino acids, amines, and short-chain quaternary ammonium compounds. Cross-reactivity was observed with other alkyldimethylbenzylammonium compounds (ADBACs). The CELISA and HPLC were used to measure the amount of pure BDD₁₂AB spikes in milk and BDD₁₂AC in five commercial products. HPLC analysis correlated well with CELISA analysis for spiked samples.     

臭氧—生物活性炭工艺去除饮用水中AOC的研究

AOC是衡量饮用水生物稳定性的重要指标.研究发现,不同的臭氧投加量下砂滤出水的AOC变化不显著,考虑氧化作用和消毒效果,将最佳的臭氧投量确定为1～2 mg/L.生物活性炭(BAC)滤池改善了臭氧氧化后出水的生物稳定性,对TAOC的去除率稳定在28%～65%,而对AOC-P17的去除效果优于AOC-NOX的,因而表现出一定的选择性.较长的空床接触时间(EBCT)并不能保证对AOC的良好去除,但有利于TOC的去除,同时水温的降低一定程度上影响了BAC对AOC的去除效果.     

Removal of saxitoxins from drinking water by granular activated carbon, ozone and hydrogen peroxide--implications for compliance with the Australian drinking water guidelines

In a laboratory-scale trial, we studied the removal of saxitoxins from water by ozone, granular activated carbon (GAC) and H₂O₂, and considered the implications of residual toxicity for compliance with the Australian drinking water standards. Cell-free extracts of Anabaena circinalis were added to raw, untreated drinking water obtained from a water supply reservoir to provide a toxicity of 30 μg (STX equivalents) l⁻¹. Ozone alone, or in combination with H₂O₂, failed to destroy the highly toxic STX and GTX-2/3, and only partially destroyed dc-STX, and the low-toxicity C-toxins and GTX-5. In all cases, the toxicity of the water was reduced by less than 10%. GAC removed all of the STX, dc-STX and GTXs, but only partially removed the C-toxins. However, the residual toxicity was reduced to the suggested Australian drinking water guideline concentration of 3 μg (STX equivalents) l⁻¹ without O₃ pre-treatment. Modelling the spontaneous chemical degradation of residual C-toxins following treatment shows that residual toxicity could increase to 10 μg l⁻¹ after 11 d due to formation of dc-GTXs and would then gradually decay. In all, residual toxicity would exceed the Australian drinking water guideline concentration for a total of 50 d.     

Individual and combined effects of water quality and empty bed contact time on As(V) removal by a fixed-bed iron oxide adsorber: Implication for silicate precoating

The individual and combined effects of changes in water quality (i.e. pH, initial concentrations of arsenate (As(V)) and competing ions) and empty bed contact time (EBCT) on As(V) removal performance of a fixed-bed adsorber (FBA) packed with a nanostructured goethite-based granular porous adsorbent were systematically studied under environmentally relevant conditions. Rapid small scale column tests (RSSCTs) were extensively conducted at different EBCTs with synthetic waters in which pH and the concentrations of competing ions (phosphate, silicate, and vanadate) were controlled. In the absence of the competing ions, the effects of initial As(V) concentration, pH, and EBCT on As(V) breakthrough curves were successfully predicted by the homogeneous surface diffusion model (HSDM) with adsorption isotherms predicted by the extended triple layer model (ETLM). The interference effects of silicate and phosphate on As(V) removal were strongly influenced by pH, their concentrations, and EBCT. In the presence of silicate (≤21 mg/L as Si), a longer EBCT surprisingly resulted in worse As(V) removal performance. We suggest this is because silicate, which normally exists at much higher concentration and moves more quickly through the bed than As(V), occupies or blocks adsorption sites on the media and interferes with later As(V) adsorption. Here, an alternative operating scheme of a FBA for As(V) removal is proposed to mitigate the silicate preloading. Silicate showed a strong competing effect to As(V) under the tested conditions. However, as the phosphate concentration increased, its interference effect dominated that of silicate. High phosphate concentration (>100 μg/L as P), as experienced in some regions, resulted in immediate As(V) breakthrough. In contrast to the observation in the presence of silicate, longer EBCT resulted in improved As(V) removal performance in the presence of phosphate. Vanadate was found to compete with As(V) as strongly as phosphate. This study reveals the competitive interactions of As(V) with the competing ions in actual adsorptive treatment systems and the dependence of optimal operation scheme and EBCT on water quality in seeking improved As(V) removal in a FBA.     

生物滤塔处理含三甲胺气体的研究

研究了分别填充堆肥和污泥的生物滤塔对含三甲胺气体的处理能力.结果表明,两种生物滤塔均能有效处理含三甲胺的气体,对三甲胺的去除率几乎达到了100%,三甲胺被生物降解并生成氨.堆肥生物滤塔各段填料中的硝态氮含量随时间的延长呈显著提高的趋势,但pH值出现下降,说明其中发生了氨的硝化作用.而在污泥生物滤塔中,随着氨的积累则各填料层的pH值迅速升高,并且没有观察到亚硝态氮以及硝态氮含量的增加,因此其不具备进一步降解氨的能力.     

Decolorization of an azo dye by unacclimated activated sludge under anaerobic conditions

Studies on the reductive decolorization of a complex azo dye, Reactive Red 3.1, were made as part of the development of a practical approach to better exploit the metabolic potential of biomass in wastewater treatment. Decolorization was achieved at low and variable rates by mixed microbial cultures under various environmental conditions, including low pH and high salt concentration. It was caused by reductive cleavage of the azo bond to yield two aromatic amines. More reliable and effective decolorization rates, of up to 20–30 mg l⁻¹ h⁻¹, were given by unadapted activated sludge, (6 g l⁻¹) incubated with 400 mg l⁻¹ of Reactive Red 3.1 under anaerobic conditions. Decolorization also occurred best in static conditions.     

不同填料生物滤塔净化城市污水厂恶臭气体研究

为比较不同生物填料用于城市污水处理厂除臭的性能,建立了4套不同填料生物滤塔小试装置,并考察了其对污水厂恶臭气体中H2S的去除性能、压降变化以及填料层的持水能力和pH缓冲能力。结果表明,在空塔停留时间为10～20s、进口H2S8.5mg/m3的条件下,珍珠岩、矿物球、竹片和沸石生物滤塔对H2S均有较好的去除效果,出口H2S浓度可长期稳定达到《恶臭污染物排放标准》(GB14554—93)的二级标准。沸石生物滤塔对H2S浓度的升高有较好的缓冲和耐受能力,珍珠岩生物滤塔有较强的持水能力,矿物球和沸石生物滤塔有较强的缓冲pH能力。     

The effect of nitrate on VOC removal in trickle-bed biofilters

In response to the growing concern over volatile organic compounds (VOCs), biofiltration is becoming an established economical air pollution control technology for removing VOCs from waste air streams. Current research efforts are concentrating on improving control over key parameters that affect the performance of gas phase biofilters. This study utilized diethyl ether as a substrate, nitrate as the sole nutrient nitrogen source within two co-currently operated trickle-bed biofilters, for over 200 days. The two pelletized medium biofilters were operated at a low empty bed contact time of 25 s, inlet gas flow rates of 8.64 m³/day, nutrient liquid flow rates of 1 liter/day, and COD loading rates of 1.8 and 3.6 kg/m³ per day, respectively. Operational parameters including contaminant concentration in the gas phase, nutrient nitrate concentration in the aqueous phase, and the frequency of biomass removal were considered. Special attention was given to the effect and the role of nitrate on VOC removal. Throughout the experiment, nitrate persisted in the liquid effluent and the ether removal efficiencies improved with increasing influent nitrate concentration, which suggest that the nitrate diffusion into the biofilms is rate determining. By increasing the concentration of oxygen in the feed to this biofilter from 21% (ambient air) to 50 and 100%, while maintaining an influent ether concentration of 133 ppmv and a feed nitrate concentration of 67 mg-N/liter, the performance of the biofilter was not significantly affected. These results suggest that nitrogen was rate limiting as a growth nutrient rather than as an electron acceptor for the respiration of ether. The results also indicated that removal of excess biomass is necessary to maintain long-term performance. However, the required frequency of biomass removal depends on operating parameters such as loading.     

Methods for the photometric determination of reactive bromine and chlorine species with ABTS

New methods for the determination of reactive bromine and chlorine species are presented. Hypobromous acid (HOBr) and all three bromamines species (NH₂Br, NHBr₂, NBr₃) are analyzed as a sum parameter and hypochlorous acid (HOCl), monochloramine (NH₂Cl) and chlorine dioxide (ClO₂) can be determined selectively. However, no distinction is possible between HOCl and the active bromine species. The bromine and chlorine species react with ABTS (2,2-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline)-6-sulfonic acid-diammonium salt) to a green colored product that is measured at 405 or 728 nm. Free chlorine and NH₂Cl can be measured in the presence of ozone. The method is therefore suitable if combinations of disinfectants are used, such as chlorine/chlorine dioxide or chlorine/ozone. In natural waters, the method provides a detection limit for all chlorine/bromine species of less than 0.1 μM. The colored reaction product is very stable and allows a fixation of the chlorine/bromine species in the field and subsequent determination of the absorption in the laboratory.     

Uptake and release of zinc by aquatic bryophytes (Fontinalis antipyretica L. ex. Hedw.)

The zinc uptake and posterior release by an aquatic bryophyte—Fontinalis antipyretica L. Ex Hedw.—was experimentally studied in laboratory exposing the plants to different zinc concentrations in the range, 1.0–5.0 mg l⁻¹, for a 144 h contamination period, and then exposed to metal-free water for a 120 h decontamination period. The experiments were carried out in perfectly mixed contactors at controlled illumination, using mosses picked out in February 1997, with a background initial zinc concentration of 263 mg g⁻¹ (dry wt.). A first-order mass transfer kinetic model was fitted to the experimental data to determine the uptake and release constants, k₁ and k₂, the zinc concentration in mosses at the end of the uptake period, C_mu, and at the equilibrium, for the contamination and decontamination stages, C_me and C_mr, respectively. A bioconcentration factor, BCF=k₁/k₂ (zinc concentration in the plant, dry wt./zinc concentration in the water) was determined. A biological elimination factor defined as BEF=1−C_mr/C_mu was also calculated. BCF decreases from about 4500 to 2950 as Zn concentration in water increases from 1.05 to 3.80 mg l⁻¹. BEF is approximately constant and equal to 0.80. Comparing Zn and Cu accumulation by Fontinalis antipyretica, it was concluded that the uptake rate for Zn (145 h⁻¹) is much lower than for Cu (628 h⁻¹) and the amount retained by the plant decreased by a factor of about seven.     

Effect of water hardness on the toxicity of cadmium to micro-organisms

A study was made of the effect of water hardness at different concentrations (viz. 0, 80, 120, 160, 240, 320, 400 and 480 mg l⁻¹ as CaCO₃) on the toxicity of cadmium metal (5 mg 1⁻¹) as sulphate to saprophytic and nitrifying bacteria, with respect to the rate constant (K) and ultimate biochemical oxygen demand (L) which were calculated from BOD data (15 days) using the Thomas Graphical Method. Glucose was used as a source of carbon for micro-organisms. It was observed that the toxicity of cadmium to micro-organisms (both saprophytic and nitrifying) decreased with increasing hardness and reached a maximum at 320 mg 1⁻¹ as CaCO₃ for nitrifying and 400 mg l⁻¹ as CaCO₃ for saprophytic bacteria. After these hardness levels, the ultimate BOD (L) and rate constant (K) showed a decrease. Nitrifying bacteria were found to be more sensitive to the metal as well as to its complexation with calcium or with other ions as they retained their normal activity at a lower hardness level as compared to saprophytic bacteria.     

Anaerobic biological treatment of phenol at 9.5-15 degrees C in an expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB)-based bioreactor

The aims of this study were to demonstrate the (1) feasibility of psychrophilic, or low-temperature, anaerobic digestion (PAD) of phenolic wastewaters at 10–15 °C; (2) economic attractiveness of PAD for the treatment of phenol as measured by daily biogas yields and (3) impact on bioreactor performance of phenol loading rates (PLRs) in excess of those previously documented (1.2 kg phenol m⁻³ d⁻¹). Two expanded granular sludge bed (EGSB)-based bioreactors, R1 and R2, were employed to mineralise a volatile fatty acid-based wastewater. R2 influent wastewater was supplemented with phenol at an initial concentration of 500 mg l⁻¹ (PLR, 1 kg m⁻³ d⁻¹). Reactor performance was measured by chemical oxygen demand (COD) removal efficiency, CH₄ composition of biogas and phenol removal (R2 only). Specific methanogenic activity, biodegradability and toxicity assays were employed to monitor the physiological capacity of reactor biomass samples. The applied PLR was increased to 2 kg m⁻³ d⁻¹ on day 147 and phenol removal by day 415 was 99% efficient, with 4 mg l⁻¹ present in R2 effluent. The operational temperature of R1 (control) and R2 was reduced by stepwise decrements from 15 °C through to a final operating temperature of 9.5 °C. COD removal efficiencies of c. 90% were recorded in both bioreactors at the conclusion of the trial (day 673), when the phenol concentration in R2 effluent was below 30 mg l⁻¹. Daily biogas yields were determined during the final (9.5 °C) operating period, when typical daily R2 CH₄ yields of c. 3.3 l CH₄ g⁻¹ COD_removed d⁻¹ were recorded. The rate of phenol depletion and methanation by R2 biomass by day 673 were 68 mg phenol g VSS⁻¹ d⁻¹ and 12–20 ml CH₄ g VSS⁻¹ d⁻¹, respectively.     

Simultaneous determination of trace amounts of free cyanide and thiocyanate by a stopped-flow spectrophotometric method

Simultaneous determination of free cyanide and thiocyanate was investigated using a stopped-flow spectrophotometric method. 1,3-dimethylbarbituric acid/isonicotinic acid at pH 5.2 was used as the colour reagent for both cyanide and thiocyanate determinations. The absorption spectrum of the complex formed by cyanide and thiocyanate with the colour reagent has a maximum wavelength at 600 nm, giving a low detection limit of 0.5 μg l⁻¹ for cyanide and 1.5 μg l⁻¹ for thiocyanate. Two proposed processes — 1,3-dimethylbarbituric acid combined with formaldehyde masking cyanide and the ferric-thiocyanate methods — can simultaneously determine free and other simple forms of cyanide and thiocyanate existing at pH 5.2; comparison of results demonstrates that both approaches are in agreement. By taking into account the effect of temperature on colour development and by using the ratio of the regression slopes, one kind of standard solution (thiocyanate) can be used for both cyanide and thiocyanate calibration, thereby avoiding the need to use toxic cyanide standard solutions.     

FeOOH催化臭氧氧化滤后水的醛、酮副产物生成情况

在连续流条件下采用羟基氧化铁催化臭氧氧化(FeOOH/O3)工艺处理滤后水,考察了小分子醛、酮副产物的生成情况。结果表明,FeOOH/O3明显提高了对DOC和SUVA的去除率,而醛、酮副产物的产量比单独臭氧氧化的增加了12.23%。经催化氧化后,出水中醛、酮产量的顺序为:甲醛乙醛乙二醛甲基乙二醛丙酮。在不同的反应条件下,随着O3投量的升高和接触氧化时间的延长,催化氧化出水的醛、酮总量均是先升高后降低,但都高于单独臭氧氧化的生成量。FeOOH/O3明显增加醛、酮总量的趋势表明,其能够进一步提高滤后水的可生化性。     

Bacterial growth on aniline: implications for the biotreatment of industrial wastewater

The degradation of aniline by bacterial consortia was investigated under aerobic, fermentative, nitrate-reducing and sulphate-reducing conditions and a variety of salt concentrations (0.2, 4 and 7% NaCl w/v) and pH values (5 and 7). A variety of degradation conditions were studied to provide information and recommendations for large-scale biological treatment of aniline-containing wastewater. Under aerobic conditions, degradation of aniline (2 mM) was achieved under all combinations of salinity and pH tested. The rate of bacterial growth decreased with increasing salinity. The bacterial consortium of each batch culture generally maintained its ability to degrade aniline when salt concentrations and pHs were changed although often the lag-phase prior to growth was extended. Microbial populations in fixed film continuous reactors were also able to resist changes in NaCl concentration. Increasing aniline concentration (0.25–1 g l⁻¹) under 0.2% NaCl (pH 5 and 7) conditions, resulted in aniline removal without affecting growth rates. At the lower pH, cell yield was not adversely affected by an increase in aniline concentration. However, at neutral pH, cell yield decreased with increasing aniline concentration. Cultures capable of degrading aniline under fermentative, nitrate-reducing and sulphate-reducing conditions were not obtained.     

Performance and biofilm activity of nitrifying biofilters removing trihalomethanes

Nitrifying biofilters seeded with three different mixed-culture sources removed trichloromethane (TCM) and dibromochloromethane (DBCM) with removals reaching 18% for TCM and 75% for DBCM. In addition, resuspended biofilm removed TCM, bromodichloromethane (BDCM), DBCM, and tribromomethane (TBM) in backwash batch kinetic tests, demonstrating that the biofilters contained organisms capable of biotransforming the four regulated trihalomethanes (THMs) commonly found in treated drinking water. Upon the initial and subsequent increased TCM addition, total ammonia nitrogen (TOTNH₃) removal decreased and then reestablished, indicating an adjustment by the biofilm bacteria. In addition, changes in DBCM removal indicated a change in activity related to DBCM. The backwash batch kinetic tests provided a useful tool to evaluate the biofilm’s bacteria. Based on these experiments, the biofilters contained bacteria with similar THM removal kinetics to those seen in previous batch kinetic experiments. Overall, performance or selection does not seem based specifically on nutrients, source water, or source cultures and most likely results from THM product toxicity, and the use of GAC media appeared to offer benefits over anthracite for biofilter stability and long-term performance, although the reasons for this advantage are not apparent based on research to date.